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{UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. {■ 



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AMEEICAN GEAMMAE: 




ADAPTED TO THE 



NATIONAL LANGUAGE OF THE UNITED STATES; 



WITH AN ACCOMPANYING 

FOR ADOPTION BY TEACHERS AND SCHOOLS. 

DESIGNED AND ARRANGED FROM THE BEST AMERICAN AUTHORS ; 

BY JAMES P. HEREON, 

INYENTOR OF THE INSPIRATORY AURADUCT. 



My native Country is full of youthful promise. — Irving. 
Others for Language all their care express. — Pope. 



COLUMBUS, OHIO: 
OSGOOD & PEARCE, PRINTERS, 109 TOWN STREET. 

18 5 9. 






According to Act of Congress, 

Entered in May, 1858, by James P. Herron, in the Clerk's Office of the 

Northern District of Ohio, and Court of the United States. 



Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1859, by 

JAMES P. HERRON, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the 
Southern District of Ohio. 



PREFACE 



A desire, that our National Literature may hold a 
permanent place in the Republic of letters, and the 
study of our Language facilitated and made more 
agreeable to our own Nation and others, has induced 
an humble author to venture a departure from many 
venerated predecessors, and to call our vernacular 
tongue, the American Language. 

As early impressions are indelible, all-powerful, and 
the earlier they are made the more difficult they are 
to obliterate, (this being a fact nationally, as indi- 
vidually,) it will be expected that any departure or 
change from the impress of character, customs, or 
titles, our nation received in its colonial infancy will 
be still critically objected to — notwithstanding, in 
the progress of our Country, many improvements and 
discoveries, on account of novelty, are surprisingly re- 
jected, without examination or investigation— by many 
of our American People. Feeling sensible of these 
facts, and also that the educational ability of this 
Country now equals that of any people — our name 
and character being respected by every nation — 



IV PREFACE. 

American influence making its way to all coun- 
tries, and our National Literature taking a high 
rank in the scholastic world ; I have dared to 
submit a title to my countrymen for adoption, so, 
that our language may have a name and place 
among the Nations ; which we surely are naturally 
entitled to, in connection with a distinct government 
and peculiar institutions. 

Eighty-three years having elapsed since our na- 
tional birth, and over three quarters of a century ago 
England acknowledged our nationality, since then 
we have been known as a distinct and separate people 
among neighboring nations, who view the Constitu- 
tion of the United States as a bright shining star in 
the political firmament; acknowledge the Statesmen 
— as counsels to all courts of civilized nations ; and 
admitting the Clergy — to disseminate Christianity to 
all parts of Earth ; all demanding our language in 
our Country's name, that any desired effect may 
not be frustrated or retarded by prejudice to England 
and the British Government. 

Having no conviction that England is to be the stand- 
point of all literature : but this being an age of advance- 
ment, and our name carrying on its face the very idea 
of progression, independence, freedom of thought, and 
speech, I see not why keep our tongue clothed in the 
scarlet garb of a British Isle, when we express our 
own free thoughts in language our own, adopted 
from the tongues of the many nations, of our fore- 
fathers, who (by the hand of God and our repre- 
sentative Head) have made us an American People. 



PREFACE. V 

Consequently, language in the United States is 
Polyglot — national with our people — not borrowed 
from any one distinct tongue. Therefore, I submit the 
following pages, embracing Principles, Rules, Exam- 
ples, and Exercises, under the appellation of our 
country ; that in this, we may be known among the 
Nations of the Earth, as we are by Constitution, 
Laws, Institutions, Genius, Literature, &c, &c. 

Feeling sensible of high national equality and honor, 
from distinguished Generals, Orators, Statesmen, and 
Teachers, whose heroism has breasted the battle storm 
in defense of human rights — whose eloquence in de- 
fending Liberty has been felt by thrones — whose 
wisdom has given laws that are respected by all na- 
tions, and whose learning is going to all parts of this 
Globe, inspiring the geniuses, and enlightening the 
benighted — making millions intelligent and happy. 
From these and other considerations I have endeav- 
ored to confine this work to American authority, 
which is so very copious, that, comparatively,. I have 
been limited to select and give credit to but a few 
of the innumerable multitude, finding it unnecessary 
and also inexpedient to hold the progressive literary 
capacity of our youth back two and three centuries 
to the English literature of the days of Goldsmith, 
Johnson, Shakespear, and others. 

I have made Mr. Webster's American Dictionary 
a favorite standard in the classification of words, ar- 
ranging them in nine divisions, successively. The 
work commencing with a brief Synopsis and Rules. 



VI PREFACE. 

The Second part is a system of Etymology and 
Syntax, giving a full account of the offices each part 
of speech performs in sentences, (leaving definitions 
of terms, &c, to the Dictionary,) confining all models 
and practical exercises to the parts of speech only 
treated of, not confounding the mind with a word in a 
sentence when the office of its class has not been given. 

In the third division all exercises, in the analysis 
of sentences, will also be classified and parsed, as, in 
the second part, reviewing it by so doing. The Fal- 
lacies will be corrected, analyzed, classified, and 
parsed, according to models and rules preceding. • 

The fourth part treating of Elocution and Versi- 
fication, is supplied with various specimens of compo- 
sition. And all exercises in Poetry are strictly con- 
fined to this division or versification, that the mind 
may, be first thoroughly instructed in prosaic com- 
positions, before confusing it with poesy, for few 
are Poets. 

The entire work is so arranged that classes may 
be instructed on the plan of Concurrent Induction; 
all members of the class reciting in concert, or in- 
struction may otherwise be given. The accompany- 
ing analytical exercises are for advanced scholars in 
a class, and for review. 

The Book and Panorama have been calculated and 
arranged to accompany each other, or either one to 
be used independent of the other. 

Columbus, Ohio, August, 1859. 



C ONTENTS 



SYNOPTICAL INTRODUCTION: 

Parts of Speech 13 

Nouns - 13 

Pronouns.... 14 

Verbs 15 

Adjectives 15 

# Adverbs 16 

Prepositions 16 

Conjunctions 16 

Participles 17 

Interjections IT 

Kules oe Grammar 18 

PART II. 

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX : 

Nouns 25 

Gender 26 

Person 28 

Number 28 

Case 30 

Pronouns 31 

Relatives 33 

Verbs 34 

Person and Number 35 

Mode and Tense 36 

Form — Voice 40 

Conjugation of Substantive 43 

Regular 4 



VIII CONTENTS. 

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX: 

Verb, Conjugation by Murray 53 

Irregular Verbs — in Classes 57 

Defective Verbs 63 

ETYMOLOGICAL PARSING : 

Models for Classifying 64 

Parsing 65 

Exercises QQ 

Analytical 67 

Adjectives 68 

Parsing Models 72 

Exercises 73 

Analytical Exercises 74 

Adverbs 75 

Parsing Model 76 

Exercises 77 

Analy ti cal Exercises 78 

Prepositions 78 

Relations.... 79 

Parsing Model 81 

Exercises 81 

Analytical Exercises 81 

Conjunctions 82 

Parsing Model 83 

Exercises $6 

Analytical Exercises 86 

Participles 87 

Parsing Model 89 

Exercises 91 

Analytical Exercises 91 

Interjections 92 

Analytical Exercises 93 



CONTENTS. IX 

CLASSIFIC CHARACTER OF WORDS , 94 

DERIVATION 96 

Anglo-Saxon Language, A. D., 900... 97 

English Language in A. D. 1430 98 

DERIVATIVE Words 99 

Prefixes 101 

Greek 102 

Latin 102 

Various 104 

Model for analyzing 104 

Affixes 105 

Principal 106 

Model for analyzing 108 

PART III. 
ANALYTICAL SYNTAX. 

OBJECTS AND THEIR ATTRIBUTES: 

Properties of Ill 

Attributes 112 

Uniting Attributes to Objeets 113 

PROPOSITIONS: 

Predicate, Copula 115 

Models 116 

Modifications 118 

An Adjective 121 

CLASSES OF SENTENCES: 

Agent qualified, , 123 

Adjective Words 125 

Adnomial Words 128 

Predicate qualified 131 

Objective Elements 131 

Adverbial Elements.... 135 



X CONTENTS. 

COMPLEX AND COMPOUND ELEMENTS 137 

Agents Qualified by Elements......... 145 

Predicate Qualified by Phrases 149 

COMPLEX SENTENCES 150 

Predicate Qualified by Clauses 155 

Agents Qualified by Clauses... ; 151 

Adverbial Elements 156 

Elements Containing Clauses 159 

Clauses and Phrases used as Agents... 160 

COMPOUND SENTENCES , 163 

COMPOSITION— Arrangement of words 166 

Special Principles 167 

Nouns 167 

Pronouns 169 

Verbs 170 

Adjectives 171 

Adverbs 173 

Prepositions 174 

Conjunctions 174 

Participles 175 

EALSE-SYNTAXIS AND SOLECISMS: 

Of Nouns and Pronouns 176 

Exercises 178 

Of Verbs 180 

Exercises 182 

Of Adjectives 185 

Exercises 186 

Of Adverbs 188 

Exercises 189 

Of Prepositions 190 

Exercises 191 

Of Conjunctions 192 

Exercises 192 

Of Participles 194 

Exercises 194 



CONTENTS. XI 

FALLACIES PROMISCUOUSLY ARRANGED 195 

A List of Impromper Phrases 211 

Contractions and Improprieties 212 

PUNCTUATION : 

Comma 215 

Semicolon 219 

Colon 220 

Period 221 

Interrogation point 222 

Exclamation point 222 

Parenthesis, etc 223 

Capital Letters 226 

P A RT IV. 

PROSODY: 

Elocution 229 

Rhetorical Divisions of a Discourse... 230 

Different Kinds of Composition 231 

Prose Composition 232 

Biography 232 

Essays.. 233 

History 233 

Letters 234 

Memoirs 235 

Narrative 236 

Novels 237 

Orations 238 

Philosophy 239 

Sermons 240 

Figures 241 

Of Etymology 242 

Exercises 245 

Of Syntax 246 

Of Rhetoric 247 



XII CONTENTS. 

POETEY. 

Blank Verse 253 

Khyme * 254 

Versification 259 

Meter 259 

Feet 262 

Trochaic Verse 253 

Iambic Verse 266 

Anapestic Verse 372 

Dactylic Verse 273 

Poetical Pauses 275 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF POETRY: 

Descriptive 278 

Didactic 280 

Dramatic 281 

Elegiac 284 

Epic 266 

Lyric 289 

Pastoral 291 

Satiric 293 

Sonnet 294 

Spiritual -295 

Blank Verse 298 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES 299-312 



AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 



American Grammar is the art of speaking and 
writing the American Language according to its gen- 
eral principles and particular rules. 

The general principles of Grammar are embraced in 
its four divisions — Orthography, Etymology, Syntax 
and Prosody. 

Orthography treats of letters and syllables ; Etymol- 
ogy, of words ; Syntax, of sentences ; and Prosody, of 
elocution and versification. 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Words are divided into nine sorts, or general classes, 
called Parts of Speech — namely, the Noun, Pronoun, 
Yerb, Adjective, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, 
Participle and Interjection. 

NOUNS. 

A noun is a name ; as, James, Ohio, Virtue. 
Nouns are either proper or common. 
A proper noun is the name of an individual ; as, 
Adam, Washington, Calvary. 



14 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

A common noun is a name applied to all things of 
the same class, sort or genius ; as, Boy, City, Mountain. 

GENDER. 

Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to 
sex. Nouns have three genders : 

The masculine ; as, John, Man, Horse. 
The feminine ; as, Rachel, Woman, Coiv. 
The neuter ; as, Book, House, Table. 

NUMBER. 

Number is the distinction of nouns, as one or more, 
called — 

Singular; as, Boy, Man, Day. 

Plural ; as, Boys, Men, Hays. 

pronouns. 

1. A pronoun is a word that may be used instead of 
a noun; as, William — He; Mary — She; Light — It. 

2. Pronouns are divided into two classes. The first 
class contains five, called Personal : I, Thou or You, 
He, She and It ; with their plurals We, Ye or You and 
They. 

3. Gender is only applied to the third person singu- 
lar of pronouns. He is masculine ; She is feminine ; 
It is neuter. 

4. The second class are Relative pronouns : Who, 
Which and That. 



VERBS — ADJECTIVES. 15 

VERBS. 

1. A verb is a word which denotes being or action ; 
as, I be ; You hear ; He runs. 

Verbs are of two kinds, Transitive and Intransi- 
tive. 

2. A transitive verb may be known by its taking an 
object after it, when used in an active sense ; as, God 
made man ; Cities contain houses. 

3. An intransitive verb has no object on which it 
terminates ; as, Man thinks ; Birds fly; Animals exist. 

adjectives. 

L An adjective is a word used to qualify a noun 
expressed, or represented by a pronoun. 

2. Adjectives qualify first, by limiting ; as, A lady, 
The boy, One year ; second, by demonstrating ; as, 
This tree, That man ; third, by describing ; as, A 
large apple, A beautiful woman, He is good; and 
fourth, by distributing ; as, Each parent, Every 
person. 

3. Adjectives generally have three degrees of com- 
parison ; first, the Positive ; second, the Compara- 
tive ; and third, the Superlative ; as, 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Great, - Greater, - Greatest 

Small, - - Smaller, - - Smallest. 

"Wise, - "Wiser, - - Wisest 

A great man, The smaller boy, The wisest children. 



1 6 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

ADVERBS. 

1. An adverb is a word used to qualify a verb, ad- 
jective, another adverb or (participle) ; as, The class 
reads well ; A very 'pretty lady ; She talks too fast ; 

m I saw the man (walking slowly.) 

2. Some adverbs, like adjectives, admit of three de- 
grees of comparison ; as, Soon, Sooner, Soonest, etc. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

A preposition is used to connect words, and show 
the relation between objects ; as, Come to me ; He lives 
at home; We are in season; The good land beyond 
Jordan. 

Obs. — The same word may be used as a preposition or ad- 
verb; as, The child stands before (prep.) the lady; I saw him 
*the day before (adv.) yesterday, etc. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or 
sentences ; as, He and I study together ; Joseph or 
Ruth has the book ; Susan reads well, but she cannot 
write. 

2. There are two classes of conjunctions ; first, the 
Copulative conjunction indicates a cause, a supposi- 
tion or an addition ; as, Here I dwell, for I desire to 
be with friends ; It is so, if you are correct ; Sarah can 
read and write. 

3. A Disjunctive conjunction indicates opposition 
of meaning ; as, Robert can read, but he cannot write. 



PARTICIPLES — INTERJECTIONS. 1 f 

Obs. — Some words may be used as conjunctions and also as 
prepositions; as, Leave me, for (con.) I desire to die alone; She 
is prepared for (prep.) death, etc. 

PARTICIPLES. 

1. A participle is a word so called, because it par- 
takes of the properties of a noun and verb ; as, Having, 
Hearing, Making, etc. 

2. There are three participles : the Present, the 
Perfect, and the Compound Perfect. 

3. The Present participle ends with ing; as, Be- 
ing, Walking, Loving. 

4. The Perfect participle denotes action finished ; 
as, Heard, Seen, Struck, Loved. 

5. The Compound Perfect participle implies prior 
completion of action, and is formed by placing having 
before the perfect participle ; as, Having heard, Having 
seen, Having struck, Having loved, etc. 

interjections. 

An interjection is a word used to express an emo- 
tion of the mind ; as, Alas ! my child ; Adieu ! my 
friend; Well done! etc. 



RULES OF AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Rule 1. A noun or pronoun is nominative to the 
verb of which it is the agent; as, 
Adam sinned ; God reigns ; He fell ; Stars shine ; We rule. 

Rule 2. A verb must agree with its nominative in 
person and number ; as, 

Mary studies ; She learns; Birds fly; Men labor; They rest. 

Rule 3. Adjectives belong to nouns or pronouns 
expressed or understood ; as, 

Beautiful lady; Good boy; He is active; Pretty children; 
White horses ; Worthless dog ; Nero was a cruel tyrant ; Vic- 
toria is an affectionate Queen ; The President is an unmarried 
man, etc. 

Rule 4. Adjectives denoting unity belong to nouns 
of the singular number only ; as, 

A boy ; That girl ; Every woman ; One man ; Eunice is a 
beautiful girl; Franklin was a profound philosopher. 

Rule 5. Adjectives implying plurality belong to 
nouns of the plural number ; as, 

Four men; Sixty feet; These boys; Noah had three sons; 
The United States have twenty-eight million inhabitants. 

Rule 6. Personal pronouns agree with the nouns 
they represent in gender, person and number ; as, 

Charles — he is robust; Eva — she is delicate; Tree — it 
falls; American people — we prosper; Boys' plants — they 
are growing. 



RULES. 19 

Rule & A noun or pronoun addressed is in the 
nominative case independent ; as, 

James, you are industrious ; Thou, Celestial Orb ; Ye Guar- 
dian Angels, protect our liberties. 

Rule 8. The possessive case is governed by the 
noun possessed ; as, 

John's book; His hat] Ladies' gloves; Kobert, do you see 
MY handkerchief ; America, OUR happy home. 

Rule 9. Nouns or pronouns in a sentence sig- 
nifying the same thing are by apposition in the same 
case ; as, 

Chase the Governor is present; John the Baptist was be- 
headed ; The river Ohio is navigable ; She herself will be the 
editor ; We Americans will sustain a national language. 

Rule 10. Transitive verbs govern the objective 
case ; as, 

Eliza studies grammar ; Jonathan loved David; Their 
sons enjoy liberty; ~We will govern ourselves ; "William, our 
friend, forgot his books. 

Rule 11. The verb BE, and its inflections, may 
have the same case after as before them ; as, 

David was & poet; I be a mechanic; I am he; Thou art 
Peter; They will be scholars; We ourselves were his faithful 
supporters ; You took him to be a woman. 

Rule 12. Intransitive and Passive verbs have 
the same case after as before them, when both words 
signify the same thing ; as, 

Hiram roams a fugitive; Stephen died a martyr ; He will 
be called Isaac. 



20 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Rule 13. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, ad- 
verbs and participles ; as, 

He speaks fluently ; My brother Charles is very affection- 
ate; The class parsing correctly, learns yery fast. 

Rule 14. Prepositions govern the objective case; as, 

She came with me from London to New York ; He stands 

among neighbors aboye reproach, though persecuted by 

brethren in profession. 

Rule 15. The objective case is often governed by 
a preposition understood ; as, 

He gave — me a dollar ; I -will give — you your wages ; She 
will tell — you the story. 

Rule 16. Conjunctions connect words or sen- 
tences ; as, 

Andreio and Benjamin read and write very well; I saw 
him or her ; It fell, but did not break] Joel and Lewis are 
both musicians, but cannot sing or play together correctly. 

Rule IT. Participles refer to nouns or pronouns 
expressed or understood ; as, 

I see the stars shining ; I saw him beheaded ; Having 
finished our studies, and retiring to rest, we heard reading 
in another room. 

Rule 18. Participles retain the regimen of the 
verbs from which they are derived ; as, 

Knowing Sarah to be pious, I esteemed her ; The class having 
finished their lesson, sat down. 

Rule 19. Present participles sometimes become 
nouns ; as, 

On hearing the report, I became alarmed ; By overeating ', the 
health is impaired. 



RULES. 21 

Rule 20. When a collective noun conveys the 
idea of unity, its pronoun and verb must be singu- 
lar ; as, 

The class is large, and it learns rapidly; The General As- 
sembly was united in its sentiments. 

Rule 21. Collective nouns conveying the idea 
of plurality, their pronouns and verbs must be plu- 
ral ; as, 

My people are vain and thoughtless; they do not con- 
sider their latter end. 

Rule 22. Two or more nominatives taken in con- 
nection must have a verb in the plural ; as, 

Jane and Eliza were at church : Death, Judgment and 
Eternity are realities. 

Rule 23. Two or more singular nominatives 
taken separately must have &verb in the singular) as, 

Either Joseph or his Uncle has written this letter ; 
Nancy or Helen intends going to the fair. 

Rule 24. A relative pronoun must agree with its 
antecedent in gender, person and number ; as, 

Thomas who speaks ; He who writes ; They that labor ; 
The dog which barks. 

Rule 25. The relative is nominative to the verb 
when there is no intervening nominative ; as, 

The lady, who entertained us, sung sweetly; The bird, 
which sings in the morning, is on the tree that grows in the 
garden. 



22 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Rule 26. When there is an intervening nominative, 
the relative pronoun is governed by the following 
verb , or by a preposition ; as, 

He whom I loved will not forsake me ; The lady, to whom 
I gave the ring, is a Jewess; The horse that I drove was 
my father's. 

Rule 27. A noun or pronoun after like or unlike 
is governed by the preposition to or unto understood ; as, 

Lucy was like — her sister Mary ; David is unlike — his 
father ; You he like Samuel. 

Rule 28. Home, and nouns expressing distance, 
time, etc., are mostly governed by a preposition under- 
stood ; as, 

He came — home ; I am going — forty miles ; They have 
read — two hours; (to the distance of forty miles,) etc. 

Rule 29. Nouns of value, extent, or duration, 
are used without a governing word ; as, 

This hook is worth two dollars ; The wall will he nine 
eeet high, and eight feet thick; Noah lived nine hundred 
and fifty years. 

Rule 30. A noun or pronoun before a participle, 
when its case depends on no other word in the sentence, 
is in the nominative case absolute ; as, 

My brother being ahsent, I am alone ; Eliezer having re- 
turned, we commenced our studies ; She, having finished her 
education, returned home. 

Rule 31. A noun or pronoun following than, as, 
or but, may be in the nominative or objective case ; as, 

Silas attended class more than Reuben ; She reads as well as 
her sister ; I taught all hut him. 



RULES. 23 

Rule 32. Verbs following bid, dare, feel, hear, 
help, let, make, need, see, and their participles, are in 
the infinitive mode without the sign (to) expressed ; as, 

I bid you study ; The teacher makes the class — recite ; He 
heard the ladies — sing ; We are helping William — hunt his 
ball ; Let me see your book. 

Rule 33. The infinitive mode may be governed 
by a noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, conjunc- 
tion or participle ; as, 

I taught the lady to write ; He invited her to accompany 
him; Charles intends to go home; He is able to work; The 
Bible teaches men how to die; Nothing keeps a man more 
ignorant than to read little; Jesse, having learned to spell, 
commenced to read. 

Rule 34. The infinitive mode or part of a sen- 
tence may be nominative to a verb ; as, 

To eight is dishonorable ; That man should revere the 
great Author of his being, is rational and self-evident. 

Rule 35. Two negatives in the same sentence are 
improper, unless used to affirm ; as, 

I have not been doing nothing; (Affirm), I have been do- 
ing something. 

Rule 36. An Ellipsis, or omission of words, is 
admissible, when they can be supplied in the mind with 
readiness and certainty, as not to obscure the sense ; as, 

He is a learned man, and he is a wise man, and he is a 
good man; He is a learned, wise and good man. 



PAET II. 

American Grammar is the art of speaking and 
writing our American Language according to its gen- 
eral principles and fixed rules. 

The general principles of Grammar are contained in 
its four divisions — namely, Orthography, Etymology, 
Syntax, and Prosody. 

I. ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography, word-making, or spelling, includes 
a knowledge of the nature and power of letters, and 
teaches how to spell words correctly. 

Obs. — This part of Grammar may be learned from spelling- 
books and dictionaries, and consequently not dwelt on in this 
place. 

II. ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology includes the knowledge of defining all 
the words in the American language — their different 
changes and derivations divided into classes called 
Parts of Speech. 

III. syntax. 

Syntax includes a knowledge of the rules of compo- 
sition, the art of forming and arranging words into 



. NOUNS. 25 

sentences correctly, as understood from our best writers 
and speakers. 

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

The Parts of speech in the American language are 
nine — namely, the Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Adjective, 
Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Participle, and 
Interjection. 

I. NOUNS. 

A noun is a name ; a sound or combination of sounds 
by which a thing is called, whether material or immate- 
rial — as, material substance, man, house, tree, water ; 
immaterial things, as, faith, hope, love, etc. 

Nouns are of two kinds, Proper and Common. 

A Proper noun is the name applied to an individual ; 
as David, Jerusalem, Liberty. 

A Common noun is a name common to many of the 
same class or sort ; as, Boy, City, Field, etc. 

A Proper noun, in the singular number, when limited 
by a or the becomes Common ; as, He is a Solomon ; 
He will be the Washington of his age. 

A Proper noun, used in the plural number, applied 
to two or more individuals, becomes Common ; as, the 
Adamses, Beechers, Wilsons, Websters, etc. 

A noun denoting many, as, army, people, etc., is called 
a Collective noun, or noun of Multitude. ~ 



26 



AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 



Names of qualities, as, piety, wickedness, are Ab- 
stract nouns. 

Names of actions or state of being, as, reading, 
writing, sleeping, are Verbal nouns. 

To Nouns belong Gender, PersoA, Number, and 
Case. 

GENDER. 

The Gender of a noun tells to what class it belongs 
with regard to sex. 

Nouns have three Genders, or distinctions of sex, 
the Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. 

Some nouns are either masculine or feminine; such 
as, parent, child, cousin, servant, and neighbor. 

Some Neuter nouns are said to be masculine or 
feminine by figure of speech; as, of the sun, He is 
setting ; of the moon, She is eclipsed ; of a ship, She 
sails. 

Our language has three ways of distinguishing the 
sex: 

1. By different words ; as, 



Bachelor, 


Maid. 


Father, 


Mother. 


Men, Women. 


Beau, 


Belle. 


Friar, 


Nun. 


Master, Mistress. 


Boy, 


Girl. 


Gander, 


Goose. 


Nephew, Neice. 


Brother, 


Sister. 


Hart, 


Koe. 


Earn, Ewe. 


Buck, 


Doe. 


Horse, 


Mare. 


Son, Daughter. 


Bull, 


Cow. 


Husband, 


Wife. 


Stag, Hind. 


Drake, 


Duck. 


King, 


Queen. 


Uncle, Aunt. 


Earl, 


Countess. 


Lord, 


Lady. 


Wizzard, Witch. 


2. By 


a difference of termination 


; as, 


Actor, 


Actress. 


Lion, 


Lionesss. 


Adulterer 


, Adulteress. 


Patron, 


Patroness. 



GENDER. 



21 



Autnor, 

Bridegroom, 

Benefactor, 

Count, 

Duke, 

Elector, 

Emperor, 

Executor, 

Hero, 

Heir, 

Host, 

Jew, 



Authoress. 

Bride. 

Benefactress. 

Countess. 

Duchess. 

Electress. 

Empress. 

Executress. 

Heroine. 

Heiress. 

Hostess. 

Jewess. 



Poet, 

Prince, 

Protector. 

Sultan, 

Testator, 

Traitor, 

Tutor, 

Tyrant, 

Victor, 

Votary, 

Widower, 



Poetess. 
Princess. 
Protectress, 
f Sultani or 
\ Sultaness. 
Testatrix. 
Traitoress. 
Tutoress. 
Tyrantess. 
Victress. 
Votaress. 
"Widow. 



She-goat. Land-fora 7 , 

Maidservant. Gentle-man, 
Female-child. Tea-cock, 



Landlady. 

Gentle-woman. 

Tea-hen. 



3. By prefixing or affixing a distinguishing word ; as, 

He-goat, 

Man-servant, 

ikfate-child, 

Observations on Gender. — 1. The masculine often in- 
cludes both sexes; as, Man is mortal; The horse is a noble 
animal. 

2. The feminine is sometimes used for the whole ; as, The 
cat is useless if she is fed too well. 

3. Children and animals are sometimes spoken of in the 
neuter as well as their appropriate genders ; as, to say of a 
child, It is well — he or she is well; and also of a horse or dog, 
It runs fast, or He runs fast, etc. 

4. Some words are used only in the masculine ; as, baker, 
bear, dandy, rake 1 etc. 

5. Some words are used only in the feminine; as, amazon, 
belle, brunette, jilt, laundress, mantumaker, milliner, seam- 
stres, shrew, siren, virago, vixen, etc. 

6. Eor a neuter noun, converted by figure of speech into 
the masculine or feminine gender, no certain rule can be 
given. We must be governed by the usage of good writers 
and speakers. Nouns conveying the idea of firmness, power, 
or strength, are generally made masculine ; as, sleep, death, sun, 
time, etc. Nouns conveying the idea of loveliness, timidity, 
weakness, or passiveness, are more frequently made feminine; 



28 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

as, earth, nature, moon,, religion; also the names of cities, 
countries, ships, and abstract nouns; as, virtue, wisdom, etc. 

PERSON. 

In Grammar, Person relates to a noun or pronoun as 
speaking, spoken to, or spoken of. 

There are three persons ; the first, second, and 
third. 

Nouns are of the first person only when put by ap- 
position with J or we\ as, "I, Paul, have written it." 
We, the people, do rule. 

A noun denoting the person or thing addressed is of 
the second person ; as " Thou God seeest me ; " 
"Hail, Liberty!'' 

A noun denoting the person or thing spoken of is 
of the third person ; as, Man is mortal ; Winds blow. 

NUMBER. 

In Grammar, Number is used to indicate but one or 
Trior e than one. 

Nouns have two numbers ; the Singular, denoting^ut 
one, as, boy, man, house ; the Plural, denoting more 
than one ; as, boys, men, houses. 

The Plural number is regularly formed by adding s 
to the singular ; as, boy, boys ; book, books, etc. 

Nouns ending with s, sh, ch soft k, x, or o, form the 
Plural by adding es ; as, Miss, Misses ; Brush brushes ; 
Match, matches ; Fox, foxes ; Hero, heroes. 

Some nouns ending with/, fe, and y after a conso- 
nant, are changed into ves and ies in the plural ; as, 



NUMBER. 29 

Loaf, lo&ves; Life, lives; Lady, ladies. Others are 
regular. Also those with Jf, except staff, (staves,) are 
regular. 

Some nouns are irregular in forming their plurals; as, 

Sing. Child, Foot, Goose, Mouse, Ox, Tooth, 

Plural. Children. Feet. Geese. Mice. Oxen. Teeth. 

Some nouns with both a regular and irregular plural 
differ in signification ; as, 



Singular. 




Plural. 


Brother, 


(one of the same family,) 


brothers. 


Brother, 


Tone of the same society,) 
(a small cube for Gaming, 


brethren. 


Die, 


) dice. 


Die. 


(a stamp for coining,) 


dies. 


Index, 


(a table of reference,) 


indexes. 


Index, 


(a character in algebra,) 


indices. 


Penny, 


(a coin.) 


pennies. 


Penny, 


(a sum or value,) 


pence. 


Some compounds pluralize the first word ; as, 


Sing. Aid-de- 


■3amp, Brother-in-law, 


Court-martial. 


Plural. Aids-de 


s-camp. Brothers-in-law. 


Courts-martial. 



Names of metals, virtues, vices, and things meas- 
ured or weighed, are mostly confined to the singular 
number ; as, Gold, mildness, prudence, bread, beer, 
beef, etc. Wines, teas, etc., refer to different sorts. 

Some nouns are used in the plural only ; as, Annals 
credenda, literati, minutie ; also things of two or 
more parts ; as, Ashes, bellows, clothes, embers, pliers, 
scissors, tongs, etc. 

Some nouns are alike in both numbers ; as, Deer, 
sheep, trout, salmon, apparatus, series, couple, dozen, 
head, hundred, score, thousand, etc. 
1* 



30 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

CASES OF NOUNS. 

In our language the noun has three Cases, namely, 
the Nominative, Possessive, and Objective. 

The Nominative Case expresses the name of a thing 
or the agent of a verb ; as, Charles plays ; Girls 
learn ; Harriet sings ; Men labor, etc. 

The Possessive Case expresses the relation of pos- 
session, and is apostrophised with a letter s that distin- 
guishes it; as, James' } s pen ; William 1 shook ; Father's 
farm; Sun's rays ; Men's shoes, etc. 

When the plural ends with s it is only apostrophised ; 
as, Drapers' cloths ; Eagles' wings, etc. 

Obs. — In possessive nouns singular, where s brings together 
several sounds of s or z it is omitted; as, Moses' laws, not 
Moses's laws; Conscience' sake, not conscience's sake, etc. 

The Objective Case denotes the object of some 
action or relation ; as, Charles assists James ; They 
live in Washington. 

The different positions which a noun occupies in com- 
position, are as follows : 

A noun is nominative to a verb ; as, Isabella recites. 

It is in the Possessive Case ; as, Isabella's book. 

It is in the Objective Case, governed by a transitive verb; as, 
I saw Isabella. 

It is in the Objective Case, governed by a transitive parti- 
ciple ; as, After hearing Isabella read, I dismissed the class. 

It is in the Objective Case, governed by a preposition ; as, 
give the book to Isabella. 

It is in the Nominative Case Independent ; as, Isabella, you 
recite well. 



PRONOUNS. 31 

It is in the Nominative Case Absolute ; as, Isabella having 
arrived, we proceeded on our journey. 

It is in the Nominative Case by apposition ; as, the Gram- 
marian Isabella is present. 

It is in the Objective Case by apposition ; as, I hear the 
Grammarian Isabella analyzing a sentence. 

It may be in the Nominative Case after the verb BE, or one 
of its inflections ; as, The lady is Isabella. 

It is in the Objective Case after the verb to be ; as, I took 
her to be Isabella. 

It, in connection with the Infinitive mode or a part of a 
sentence, is put in the Nominative Case to a verb ; as, To hear 
Isabella play on the piano forte is entertaining. 

A noun used without a restraining word, is generally taken 
in its widest sense ; as, Man is mortal, etc. 

II. PRONOUNS. 

A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun or 
name to prevent a repetition of it. 

There are two kinds of pronouns, Personal and 
Relative. 

The Personal pronouns are — I, thou or you, he, she, 
it, with their plurals, we, ye or you, they. Thou and 
ye are now mostly confined to the solemn style. 

Gender belongs only to the third person singular of 
pronouns : He masculine, She feminine, It neuter. 

Myself, yourself or thyself, himself, herself, itself, 
and their plurals, are reciprocal, or compound personal 
pronouns, and are mostly used in apposition with nouns 
or other pronouns. 

Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours and theirs fre- 
quently include the possessor and the thing possessed ; 



32 



AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 



and, in such cases, should be analyzed as compound per- 
sonal pronouns. 



MODEL FOR DECLINING 


PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 


First Person. Nominative. 


Possessive. 


Objective. 


Singular, I, 


My or Mine, 


Me. 


Plural. "We, 


Our or Ours, 


Us. 


Second Person. 






Singular. You, 


Your or Yours, 


You. 


Plural. You, 


Your or Yours, 


You. 


(Second Person — Old or Solemn Style.) 




(Singular. Thou, 


Thy or Thine, 


Thee.) 


(Plural. Ye, 


Your or Yours, 


You.) 


Third Person— Masculine. 






Singular He, 


His, 


Him. 


Plural. They, 


Their or Theirs, 


Them. 


Third Person — Feminine. 






Singular. She, 


Her or Hers, 


Her. 


Plural. They, 


Their or Theirs, 


Them. 


Third Person— Neuter. 






Singular. It, 


Its, 


It. 


Plural. They, 


Their or Theirs, 


Them. 



Obs. — The neuter pronoun it, sometimes called demonstra- 
tive in its use, performs various offices, as follows : 

1. It may be used properly instead of a neuter nou?i, word 
or substantive phrase ; as, Time is precious ; it should he care- 
fully spent. Woman is a noun; it is irregular in the plural. 
You are good scholars, and you kno^rr. "And the burden that 
was upon it shall be cut off ; for the Lord hath spoken it." 

2. It is used as an indefinite subject of the verb be, followed 
by a predicate in any person or number ; as, " It is I ;" " It is 



you ; ' 



' It is they" etc. 



3. It is used in the same manner after the verb be in inter- 
rogative sentences; as, "Who is it?" "What is it? etc. 



PRONOUNS. 33 

4. It is prefixed as an introductory subject to 'such words as 
to be, to happen, to become, and the like, referring to an infin- 
itive mode, or substantive phrase, which follows the verb, and 
is its true subject ; as, It is an honor for man to cease from con- 
tention — i. e., To cease from contention is an honor for man. 
It has been proved that the earth revolves on its axis — i. e., 
That the earth revolves on its axis has been proved. 

5. It is used indefinitely before certain verbs to denote some 
cause unknown, or general, or well known, whose action is ex- 
pressed by the verb; as, "It rains;" "It snows;" u It thun- 
ders;" u It is cold;" "It is hot," etc. Verbs before which it 
is thus used are said to be impersonal. 

6. It is sometimes used as a mere expletive ; as, Come and 
trip it as you go. 

7. It is used instead of a participle, limited by other words ; 
as, As for the building of them up, if you demand it, I will 
make the attempt, etc. 

The Relative pronouns are who, which, and that, used 
to relate, in general, to a word or phrase going before, 
called the antecedent. 

Who relates to persons ; as, The boy who studies. 

Which is applied to persons, inferior creatures, and 
things inanimate ; as, Which is the man ? The dog 
which barks ; The gloves which were lost ; Our books 
which we purchased, etc. 

That is applied to persons and things ; as, The man 
that is President ; The men that are Senators ; The 
tree that grows in the field. 

That is often used to prevent the too frequent repe- 
tition of who and which, 

Obs. — Which was formerly applied to persons as well as 
things, and is so used in the English version of the Scriptures. 



34 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Relative pronouns do not vary on account of gender, 
person or number. 

Who and which are declinable, and are declined as 
in the following model : 

Nominative. Possessive. Objective. 

Sing, and Plur. Who, Whose, Whom. 

Sing, and Plur. Which, Whose, Which. 

What may be used as a compound relative pronoun, 
including the antecedent and the relative, and is equiva- 
lent to the thing which ; as, What he told was correct 
— that is, the thing which he told was correct. 

Whoever and whosoever are compound, or double 
relative pronouns, including an antecedent and relative, 
and are analyzed like what in the foregoing example ; 
as, Whoever studies diligently will improve. Whoever 
is equivalent to he or she who. 

Whoever and Whosoever are declined as follows : 





Nominative. 


Possessive. 


Objective. 


Singular. 


Whoever, 


Whosever, 


Whomever. 


Plural. 


Whosoever, 


Whosesoever, 


Whomsoever. 



Which and what, when connected with ever and soever, 
are compound pronouns. 

Who, in asking a question, is a relative pronoun in- 
terrogatively used ; as, Who told you ? 

Which, when applied to persons, is interrogatively 
used ; as, Which is the lady? Which boy did it ? etc. 

III. VERBS. 

A verb is a part of speech that expresses action, 
being, motion, suffering, or a command or request to do 
or forbear anything, etc.; as, Charles assists ; I write ; 



VERBS 35 

He runs; The river flows ; They sleep; They are 
deceived; We see; Gome; Depart; Go; Write; 
Does he improve ? I read my Bible, etc. 

Verbs are of two kinds, Transitive and Intransi- 
tive. 

A Transitive verb represents the act of its agent or 
nominative exerted or terminating on, or passing to, an 
object ; as, James strikes Charles ; Mary studies gram- 
mar ; We see our home, etc. 

An Intransitive verb has no object after it, but ex- 
presses the being or state of its nominative, or an act 
not passing to an object ; as, I am or I be ; James 
walks ; Men think ; They sleep, etc. 

To verbs belong Person, Number, Mode, Tense and 
Voice. 

person and number. 

Person does not properly belong to verbs, for a verb 
cannot denote the person speaking, spoken to or spoken 
of; but there is a personal relative drawn from the nom- 
inative or agent of the verb, not expressed by it, but 
derived from the agent with which the verb is always 
made to agree in number. 

EXAMPLE OF PERSON AND NUMBER. 

1st Person. 2d Person. 3d Person. 
Sing. I love, You love, He, She or It loves, or John loves. 
Plu. We love, You love, They love, or boys love. 

Obs. — The third person ending in eth, as, loveth, belongs 
to ancient writings. 



36 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

MODE OR MOOD. 

Mode is the manner of expressing the being or ac- 
tion of a verb. 

Verbs have five modes ; Indicative, Subjunctive, 
Potential, Imperative, and Infinitive. 

The Indicative Mode indicates, declares, or asks a 
question ; as, Charles loves ; David, you know ; Do 
they agree ? 

The Subjunctive Mode expresses being or action as 
conditional, doubtful, or contingent, and has the verb 
subjoined to If or some conditional conjunction ; as, If 
John teaches ; If he comes ; If you go ; If we learn. 

The Potential Mode expresses liberty, necessity, ob- 
ligation, possibility, power, or will ; as, I may stay or 
go ; He must learn ; You should obey ; We can love] 
They would not consider, etc. 

The Imperative Mode commands, entreats, exhorts, 
or permits; as "Obey my voice;" " Father, forgive 
them;" "Remember thy Creator;" Go thy way, etc. 

The Infinitive Mode expresses being or action in a 
general indefinite manner, and commonly has to before 
it ; as, To be, to love, to teach, to strike, etc. 

TENSE OR THE DISTINCTION OF TIME. 

Time is naturally divided into three general divisions, 
Present, Past, and Future. 

In our language the three divisions of time are di- 
vided or arranged into six Tenses, associated with the 
verb, giving it various formations, representing the dif- 



TENSE. SI 

ferent periods described by the six appropriate Tenses 
as follows : Present Tense, Pre-present Tense, Past 
Tense, Pre-past Tense, Future Tense, and Pre-future 
Tense. 

The Present Tense represents being or action at the 
present time ; as, I sit ; You write ; He loves. 

The Pre-present Tense represents being or action 
completed, and conveys an allusion to present time ; as, 
I have been ; You have learned ; He, or James, has 
taught. 

The Past Tense represents being or action in time 
past ; as, I saw ; You sat ; We learned ; They wrote. 

The Pre-past Tense represents being or action past, 
or complete before another time specified ; as, I had 
taught ; He had loved ; They had learned ; We had 
come. 

The Future Tense represents what will be or take 
place in future time ; as, I will be ; You will teach ; 
They shall learn ; We will go. 

The Pre-futvre Tense represents what will be or 
shall take place bofore some other future time specified ; 
as, I shall have written; You will have left; We 
shall have returned; They will have sat, etc. 

SIGNS OF THE TENSES OP THE INDICATIVE MODE. 

1. The primary form of the verb is always of the 
Present Tense, except the occasional use of do. 

2. Have indicates the Pre-present Tense ; as, have 
loved. 

3. Did is sometimes used to describe the Past Tense 

3 



38 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

If, however, a verb is not of the Present Tense, and 
no sign of another tense to distinguish it, the verb may 
be understood to be of the Past tense or preterit — 
learned from the Dictionary (Webster's). 

4. Had denotes the Pre-past tense; as, Had loved. 

5. Shall or will signifies the Future tense ; as, shall 
or will love. 

6. Shall have or will have denotes the Pre-future. 
tense ; as, I shall have loved or will have learned, etc. 

The Subjunctive mode has six tenses. 
The Potential mode has four tenses. 
The Infinitive mode has two tenses. 
The Imperative mode has one tense. 

OBSERVATIONS ON TENSES. 

I. The Present tense is a primary of the verb, learned from 
the Dictionary, (Webster's,) and used as follows: 

1. It expresses simple existence or action; as, I live; John 
speaks ; She loves ; They walk, etc. 

2. It is used to represent what is always true or habitual ; 
as, Virtue is its own reward; He belongs to church; She Sings 
Psalms, etc. 

3. In speaking of deceased persons it is used ; as, Nero is 
abhorred for his cruelty ; Milton resembles Homer in sublim- 
ity ; Franklin is profound, etc. 

4. It is used in historical narration for the Past tense ; as, 
" Caesar leaves Gaul, crosses the Kubicon, and enters Italy, etc. 

5. "When preceded by such words as after, as soon as, before, 
till, when, etc., it generally relates to future time ; as, After 
father returns I will commence school ; As soon as it is dark 
we will adjourn ; When he comes we will not know, etc. 

II. The Pre-present tense in its use refers to time or a 



TENSE. 89 

period, no matter how long past, so as to extend to the present 
moment : — 

1. It is used to represent being or action continuing to the 
present ; as, He has been absent three years ; We have studied 
grammar six months, etc. 

2. It is used to express acts long since completed, referring 
not to the act but the object finished and still existing; ,as 
Moses has told us many important facts in his writings ; Cic- 
ero has written orations. But if an object has been completed 
and not now in existence, this tense cannot be used; to say 
Cicero has written poems is not correct, for no such productions 
now exist. 

3. It is used sometimes in the same manner as the Present 
(see obs. I, 5.) instead of the Pre-future, to represent being or 
action finished at a future time; as, "The cock shall not crow 
till thou hast denied me thrice," etc. 

III. The Past Tense. — 1. This tense represents time entirely 
past, though ever so nigh the present, it does not include it ; 
as, I wrote yesterday ; I saw your friend a moment ago, etc. 

2. In such examples as, I wrote this morning, this week, 
etc., reference is to a period of time not now entirely past. 

3. This tense represents what was customary in time past ; 
as, "She attended church regularly all her life," etc. 

IV. The Pre-past Tense. — This tense has the same relation 
to the Past as the Pre-present has to the Present tense. At 
or before a period of time now wholly past, this tense repre- 
sents the being or action of the verb complete; as, Then, yes- 
terday, last summer, etc.; He had then studied grammar six 
months; They had been there yesterday; I had finished 

LAST SUMMER, etc. 

To the Future and Pre-future tenses the same general obser- 
vations will apply to the period of time yet future, etc. 



40 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 



FORM OF VERBS. 



In respect to form, verbs are divided into Regular, 
Irregular, and Defective. 

A Regular verb is one that forms its Past tense in 
the Indicative Active by adding ed, or d only when the 
verb ends with e; as, Commanded, loved, walked. The 
Perfect Participle emanating from the verb taking the 
same form as the Past tense or Preterit. 

An Irregular verb is one that does not take ed or d 
in the Past tense and also the Perfect Participle ; as, 
Bid, know, rid, was, etc. 

A Defective verb is one in which some of the parts 
are wanting ; as, May, ought, shall, etc. 

To Defective verbs principally belong Auxiliary 
and Impersonal verbs. 

Auxiliary or helping verbs are those used in con- 
jugating other verbs ; they are Am, be, can, could, do, 
did, had, have, may, might, must, shall, should, was, 
will, and would. 

Be, do, have, and will, sometimes are principal verbs. 

CONJUGATION. 

The Conjugation of a verb, is the regular combina- 
tion and arrangement of its several persons, numbers, 
modes, and tenses. 

VOICE. 

Voice is used in Grammar as a property of a Trans- 
itive verb to show the relation of the verb, and its 
subject. 



VOICE. 41 

A Transitive verb has two voices, Active and 
Passive. 

The Active voice represents the verb's subject to be 
the agent; as, William strikes Robert; Joseph 
makes shoes ; Jane studies French. 

The Passive voice of the verb represents the subject 
of the verb receiving the action ; as, Robert is struck 
by William ; Shoes are made by Joseph ; French is 
studied by Jane. 

Is struck, are made, and is studied, are in the 
Passive voice, because Robert, shoes, and French, are 
acted upon. 

observations. 

I. The Progressive form of the verb represents an action 
commenced and in progress but not completed; as, I am living. 

It is formed by associating the present participle with the 
verb be, or one of its inflections, through all the modes and 
tenses; as, I he or am writing; I have been writing ; I was 
writing; I had been writing; I will be writing; I will have 
been wilting, etc. 

II. The Emphatic form of the verb is used in the Present 
and Past tenses, Indicative mode, to express a fact with em- 
phasis or force — by prefixing the auxiliary do to the Present 
tense of the verb ; as, I do write ; and did in the Past ; as, I 
did write. 

The other tenses of the progressive form, and also the Pas- 
sive voice, are made emphatic by placing emphasis on the 
auxiliary; as, I have written; I AM writing ; The letter is 
written, etc. 

III. The Solemn form is the sacred or ancient grave style 



42 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

of ending the verb with th or eth of the Third Person, Singu- 
lar, Present, Indicative; as, (Solemn form,) loveth, hath loved; 
(Common form) Loves, has loved. Need is used for needs. 

Simple tenses are those inflected without an auxiliary; 
those having an auxiliary are Compound tenses. 

Men of letters may revolt at the departure from a prescrip- 
tion, supposed to be established, for conjugating verbs. The 
following is not a departure, but a collection of a few old 
fragments of conjugation, that had gone into disuse, giving 
place to more arbitrary and complex usages — as we find in the 
history of our language. It is generally supposed that the 
tendency and practice of illiterate men is to corrupt our lan- 
guage. Prom past experience the fact is directly the contrary. 
"I am prepared to prove" says a credible author (Webster), 
"that nineteen-twentieths of all the corruptions of our lan- 
guage, for five hundred years past, have been introduced by 
authors — men who have made alterations in particular idioms 
which they did not understand." Uniformity — to analogy, 
is the tendency of unlettered men ; and among our common 
people this disposition is so strong, that they have converted 
some irregular verbs into regular ones ; as, bound for bounden, 
helped for holpen, sat for sitten, swelled for swollen, worked for 
wrought, nearly obsolete, etc. This tendency is not to be con- 
temned and disregarded, for it is governed by natural primary 
principles of language, to which we owe regularity and melo- 
dy. It is a fortunate thing for our language that natural prin- 
ciples may prevail over arbitrary and artificial rules. 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 



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AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 



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51 



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AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 



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CONJUGATION. 53 

The following is a conjugation of the regular verb 

to love — a form given by Murray and others of his 

day: 

Present I love. 

Imperfect I loved. 

Perfect participle Loved. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. Hove We love. 

2. Thou lovedst Ye or you love. 

3. He, she or it loveth or loves. They love. 

Imperfect Tense 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I loved We loved. 

2. Thoulovedst Ye or you loved. 

3. He loved They loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I have loved We have loved. 

2. Thou hast loved Ye or you have loved. 

3. He has loved They have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I had loved We had loved. 

2. Thou hast loved Ye or you had loved. 

3. He had loved They had loved. 

First Future Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I shall or will love We shall or will love. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love Ye or you shall or will love. 

3. He shall or will love They shall or will love. 

Second Future Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1 . I shall have loved We shall have loved. 

2. Thou wilt have loved Ye or you will have loved. 

3. He will have loved They will have loved. 

*3 



54 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

IMPEKATIVE MOOD. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. Let me love Let us love. 

2. Love, or love thou, or do Love, or love ye, or do ye 

thou love love. 

3. Let him love Let them love. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I may or can love "We may or can love. 

2. Thou mayest or canst love.. Ye or you may or can love. 

3. He mayor can love They may or can love. 

Imperfect Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I might, could, would, or "We migqt, could, would, or 

should love should love. 

2. Thou mightest, couldst, Ye or you might, could, would, 

wouldst, or shouldst love.. or should love. 

3. He might, could, would, or They might, could, would, or 

should love ; should love. 

Perfect Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I may or can have loved... "We may or can have loved. 

2. Thou mayest or canst have Ye or you may or can have 

loved loved. 

3. He may or can have loved They may or can have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I might, could, would, or We might, could, would, or 

should have loved should have loved. 

2. Thou mightest, couldst, Ye or you might, could, would, 

wouldst, or shouldst have or should have loved, 
loved 

3. He might, could, would, or They might, could, would, or 

should have loved should have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. If I love If we love. 

2. If thou love If ye or you love. 

3. If he^love If they love. 



CONJUGATION. 55 

The remaining tenses of the Subjunctive mode are, 
in general, similar to the correspondent tenses of the 
Indicative mode. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present To love. 

Perfect To have loved. 

PAKTICIPLES. 

Present Loving. 

Perfect Loved. 

Compound Perfect Having loved. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I am loved "We are loved. 

3. Thou art loved Ye or you are loved. 

3. He is loved They are loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I was loved "We were loved. 

2. Thou wast loved Ye or you were loved. 

3. He was loved They were loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

SINGULAR PLURAL. 

1. I have been loved We have been loved. 

2. Thou hast been loved Ye or you have been loved. 

3. He hath or has been loved... They have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I had been loved We had been loved. 

2. Thou hadst been loved Ye or you had been loved. 

3. He had been loved They had been loved. 

First Future Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I shall or will be loved We shall or will be loved. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be loved..Ye or you shall or will be loved. 

3. He shall or will be loved They shall or will be loved. 



56 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Second Future Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I shall have been loved We shall have been loved. 

2. Thou wilt have been loved Ye or you will have been loved. 

3. He will have been loved They will have been loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. Let me be loved Let us be loved. 

2. Be thou loved, or do thou be Be ye or you be loved or do 

loved ye be loved. 

3. Let him be loved Let them be loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I may or can be loved We may or can be loved. 

2. Thou mayst or canst be loved Ye or you may or can be loved 

3. He mayor can be loved They may or can be loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I might, could, would, or We might, could, would, or 

should beloved should be loved. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, Ye or you might, could, would, 
wo'dst, or shouldst be loved. or should be loved. 

3. He might, could, would, or They might, could, would, or 

should be loved should be loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I may or can have been We may or can have been 

loved loved. 

2. Thou mayst or canst have Ye or you may or can have been 

been loved loved. 

3. He may or can have been They may or can have been 

loved loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I might, could, would, or We might, could, would, or 

should have been loved... should have been loved. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, wo'dst Y^e or j^ou might, could, would, 

orsho'dst have been loved. or should have been loved. 

3. He might, could, would, or They might, could, would, or 

should have been loved. should have been loved. 



CONJUGATION. 5? 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. If I be loved If we be loved. * 

2. If thou be loved If ye or you be loved. 

3. If he be loved If they be loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. If I were loved If we were loved. 

2. If thou wert loved If ye or you were loved. 

3. If he were loved If they were loved. 

The remaining tenses of the Subjunctive mode are, 
in general, similar to the correspondent tenses of the 
Indicative mode. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present To be loved. 

Perfect To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present Being loved. 

Perfect or Passive Loved. 

Compound Perfect Having been loved. 

IKREGULAB VEKBS. 

The principal part of Irregular verbs are classified 
according to the similarity of form in the Past or Pre- 
terit tense and Perfect participle. They are arranged 
in the following classes : 

1. In this class a in the Present is changed into oo, 
dropping e to form the Past tense, and adding n to 
the Present tense, forming the Perfect Participle as 
follows: 

PRESENT. PAST. PERF. PART. 

Shake shook shaken. 

Take took taken. 

Porsake forsook forsaken. 



58 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

2. Verbs of this class change the dipthong ea of 
the Present into o, adding e to form the Past tense, the 
Perfect participle changing e of the Past tense into n } 
as follows : 

PRESENT. PAST. PERF. PART. 

Bear bore born, borne. 

Swear swore sworn 

Tear tore torn. 

"Wear wore worn. 

Forbear forbore forborn, forborne. 

3. Verbs of this class mostly change i of the Pres- 
ent into o to form the Past tense, the Perfect parti- 
ciple retaining the i and ending with n ; as follows : 

PRESENT. PAST. PERF. PART. 

Arise arose arisen. 

Drive drove driven. 

Ride rode riden, rid. 

Rise rose risen. 

Smite smote smitten, smit. 

Stride strode stridden, strid. 

Strive strove striven. 

Write wrote written, writ. 

4. In this class i in the Present is changed into a or 
u in the Past tense and Participle ; as follows : 

PRESENT. PAST. PERF. PART. 

Begin began begun. 

Drink drank drank, drunk.* 

Ring rang* rung rung. 

Shrink shrank* shrunk .... shrunk. 

Sing sang* sung sung. 

Sink sank* sunk sunk. 

Spring sprang* sprung sprung. 

Swim swam, swum swum. 

* Nearly obsolete. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



59 



5. Verbs of this class change the vowel or dipthong 
of the Present into o to form the Past tense, the Per- 
fect participle the same, or ending with n more prefer- 
able ; as follows : 



PRESENT. PAST. 

Beget begot, begat . 

Break broke 

Choose chose , 

Forget forgot., 



PERF. PART. 

..begot, begotten, 
.broke, broken. 
. chose, chosen, 
.forgot, forgotten. 



Freeze ...froze froze, frozen. 

Speak spoke spoke, spoken. 

Steal stole stole, stolen. 

Tread trod trod, trodden. 

Weave wove wove, woven. 

6. Verbs of this class mostly change the vowel of 
the Present into u, which form the Past tense and Par- 
ticiple alike ; as follows : 



PAST. 



PERF. PART. 



Burst burst burst. 

Cling clung clung. 

Dig, r* dug dug. 

Fling flung flung. 

Hang hung hung. 

Ring rung rung. 

Sling slung slung. 

Slink slunk slunk. 

Spin spun spun. 

Stick stuck stuck. 

Sting stung stung. 

String strung strung. 

Swing swung swung. 

% Verbs of this class form their Past tenses regu- 
larly, and the Perfect participles ending with n irregu- 
larly ; as follows : 



*R Stands for Regular in its tenses as well as Irregular. 



60 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

PRESENT. PAST. PERF. PART. 

Grave, r graved graven. 

Hew, r hewed hewn. 

Lade, r laded laden. 

Mow, r mowed mown. 

Bive, r rived riven. 

Saw, r gawed ....sawn. 

Shave, r.. shaved shaven. 

Shear, r sheared shorn. 

Show, r .showed* shown. 

Sow, r sowed sown. 

Strew, r strewed strown. 

Swell, r swelled swollen. 

Thrive, r thrived thriven. 

8. Verbs of this class have their Past tense and 
Perfect participle alike, both ending with d ; as follows : 



RESENT. 


PAST. 


PERF. PART. 


Bleed 


bled 


bled. 


Breed 


bred 


bred. 


Clothe, r 


clad 


clad. 


Flee 


fled 


fled. 


Have , 


had 


had. 



Hear heard heard. 

Hold held held. 

Lay laid laid. 

Lead led led. 

Pay paid paid. 

Bead read .read. 

Rid rid rid. 

Say said said. 

Sell sold sold. 

Shed shed shed. 

Shoe shod shod. 

Shred shred shred. 

Speed sped sped. 

Spread spread spread. 

Stand , stood stood. 

Tell told told. 

* Sometimes written Shew, shewed, shewn. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 61 

9. Of this class of Verbs the Past tense and Perfect 
participle are alike, both ending with t; as follows : 

PRESENT. PAST. PERF. PART. 

Beat heat beat or beaten. 

Bend, r .....bent bent. 

Bereave, r bereft bereft. 

Bite bit bit or bitten. 

Build built- built. 

Cast cast cast. 

Cost cost cost. 

Creep crept crept. 

Deal dealt dealt. 

Dream, r dreamt dreamt. 

Dwell, r dwelt dwelt. 

Feel felt felt. 

Get got got or gotten. 

Gild, r gilt gilt. 

Gird, r girt girt. 

Hit hit bit. 

Keep kept kept. 

Kneel knelt knelt. 

Knit, r knit... knit. 

Leave left left. 

Lend lent , lent. 

Let let let. 

Light, r lit* lit. 

Loose lost lost. 

Mean meant meant. 

Meet met met. 

Put put put. 

Quit quit quit. 

Kend rent rent. 

Send sent sent. 

Set set set. 

Shut shut shut. 

Sit sat sat. 

Sleep slept slept. 

Slit slit slit. 

Smell smelt smelt. 

Spit spit spit. 

Split split split. 

* Inelegant. 



62 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

PRESENT. PAST. PERF. PART. 

Sweat, r sweat sweat. 

Sweep swept swept. 

Thrust thrust thrust. 

"Weep, r wept wept. 

"Wet, r wet wet. 

10. Verbs of this class have the Past tense and Per- 
fect participle, each containing the dipthong au or ou : 
as follows : 

PRESENT. PAST. PERF. PART. 

Bind bound bound. 

Bring brought brought. 

Beseech besought besought. 

Buy bought bought. 

Catch caught caught. 

Fight fought fought. 

Find found found. 

Grind ground ground. 

Seek sought sought. 

Teach taught taught. 

Think thought thought. 

"Wind wound wound. 

"Work, r wrought wrought. 

11. Verbs of this class terminate the Past tense 
with ew and the Perfect participle with wn ; as follows : 

PRESENT. PAST. PERF. PART. 

Blow blew blown. 

Draw drew drawn. 

Fly Flew flown. 

Grow grew grown. 

Know knew known. 

Throw threw thrown. 

12. Verbs of this class form their Past tense irregu- 
larly and the Perfect participle regular ; as follows : 

PRESENT. PAST. PERF. PART. 

Crow, r crew crowed. 

Dare, r... durst dared. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 63 

13. The Verb cleave forms its Past tense {cleft) irreg- 
ular and the Perfect participle the same, or regular 
cleaved. Pall and befall change a into e to form the 
Past tense and add en to form the Perfect participle. 



DEFECTIVE VEEBS. 

Defective verbs are those not complete in all their 
principal parts ; they are : — 

PRESENT. PAST. PERF. PART. 

Beware 



Can could... 

May might.. 

Must must.... 

Ought . 

Shall should. 

Will would.. 



These verbs have no Past participle, consequently they 
have no Compound tenses. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Beware is found only in the Imperative and Infinitive. 

2. Can and may, with their Past tenses, and must, should, 
and would, are found in the Indicative and the Subjunctive, 
and are always followed by the Infinitive without the particle 
to, etc. English grammarians have usually classed these 
words as forming a separate mode of the verb. However, 
they seem to be entirely analogous to the verbs bid, dare,\tet, 
etc., with the Infinitive. Por example, take the sentence, I can 
and dare defend my position. What grammarian will not 
grant that the Infinitive defend bears the same relation to can 
as to dare ? It tends much to simplify the classification of the 
verb by the omission of the Potential mode. 

3. The tense of must and ought is ascertained by the tense 
of the Infinitive following them. 



64 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

4. Another class of verbs which are used only in the third 
person, singular number, with the indefinite pronoun it for 
their subject may be called Unipersonal Verbs. They gen- 
erally indicate the condition of the weather ; as, It freezes, 
it hails, it rains, it lightens, it thunders, it snows, it thaws, etc. 

5. Many other verbs are used unipersonally ; as, It becomes 
us; It behooves me; It seems, etc. 



ETYMOLOGICAL PARSESTG. 

To parse Etymologically, first classify all the words 
contained in the sentence with the parts of speech to 
which they belong, as follows : 

MODEL FOR CLASSIFYING. 

Obs. — In all exercises, the members of the class will carefully 
concur. 

1. James instructs boys. 

James is a noun ; instructs is a verb ; boys is a noun. 

Show the synthetical relation of the words forming 
the sentence, according to their governing rules, as fol- 
lows : 

MODEL FOR PARSING. — (Class COUCUT.) 

James instructs boys. 

James . . is a noun, proper, masculine gender, third person, 
singular number, and nominative case to in- 
structs, according to Kule 1. A noun or pro- 
noun is nominative to the verb of which it is the 
agent. 



ETYMOLOGICAL PARSING. 65 

Instructs . is a regular verb, transitive, indicative mode, pres- 
ent tense, third person, singular number, agreeing 
with its nominative James, according to Eule 2. 
A verb must agree with its nominative in number 
and person. 

Boys . . is a noun, common, masculine gender, third per- 
son, plural number, and in the objective case, gov- 
erned by instructs, according to Rule 10. Tran- 
sitive verbs govern the objective case. 

2. His children freed their slaves. 



His is a pronoun ; children is a noun ; freed is a verb; their is 
a pronoun ; slaves is a noun. 

His . . is a personal pronoun, of the masculine gender, 
third person, singular number, agreeing with the 
noun represented, according to Rule 6. Personal 
pronouns agree with the nouns they represent in gen- 
der person and number. It is in the possessive 
case, governed by children, according to Rule 8. 
The possessive case is governed by the noun possessed. 

Children is a noun, common, of the masculine and feminine 
gender, third person, plural number, and nomina- 
tive to ereed, according to Rule 1. 

Freed . . is a regular verb, transitive, indicative mode, past 
tense,* third person, plural number, agreeing with 
its nominative children, according to Rule 2. 

Their . . is a personal pronoun, of the masculine and femi- 
nine gender, third person, plural number, agreeing 
with children, for which it is used, according to 
Rule 6. It is in the possessive case, governed by 
slaves, according to Rule 8. 

* May conjugate through the six tenses of the Indicative Mode. 



66 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Slaves . . is a noun, common, of the masculine and feminine 
gender, third person, plural number, and in the 
objective case, governed by treed, according to 
Eule 10. 



EXERCISES FOR CLASSIFYING AND PARSING. 

Abraham's son. Jacob's children. Pharoah's army. 
Solomon's temple. Father's house. James's books. 
Lewis's throne. Rome's Senate. Woman's influence. 
Her bonnet. His wife. Its color. My horse limps. 
Father-in-law's house. Our enjoyment. Their trouble 
increases. Alice sings. Andrew is encouraged. Hen- 
rietta walked. Elihu was admired. He has come. 
Henry may be flattered. I could have loved. Lucy 
had seen her brother. Hugh had been rebuked. She 
will have finished her studies We will have visited 
our uncle. I may be my friend's debtor. He can finish 
his work. You might deceive us. It may have disap- 
pointed her. They may have been ours. She will 
have told him. Do you know which book is yours ? 
Do you know him, if you see him ? I will reward thee, 
if thou wilt obey me. Samuel will be here, if he lives. 
Stephen would have prospered, if he had done his duty. 
Who steals my purse, steals trash. Will you be satis- 
fied, if you shall have seen it ? Who built that house ? 
Who wrote this letter ? Franklin. Whom did you see ? 
My father. Whose books are these ? Ours. What 
birds are those ? (American) Pigeons. 



EXERCISES FOR PARSING. 61 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 



We hold these truths to be self-evident : that all men 
are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Cre- 
ator with certain inalienable rights ; that among these 
are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness ; that, to 
secure these rights, governments are instituted among 
men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the 
governed ; that, whenever any form of government be- 
comes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the 
people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new 
government, laying its foundation on such principles, 
and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall 
seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. — 
Declaration of American Independence. 

American Literature. — America might take the 
lead in the literary, as she has in the political reforma- 
tion of the world. 

Here there is every thing to incite to action in so 
glorious a cause. The perpetuity of our political insti- 
tutions depends on the virtue and intelligence of our 
citizens. Literature, by disseminatingwholesome knowl- 
edge, might be rendered highly available in giving sta- 
bility and permanency to our system of government. 

Besides these glorious incitements, where so fine a 
field ? where one so rich in originality, or so boundless 
in natural advantages ? Surely not in the old world, 
where genius is fettered by tyranny, and where mind has 
been enslaved for ages. 

Here is an unbroken field, where genius may wander 
amid ever-changing prospects of delight. Nature 
spreads before us a vast and magnificent domain, redo- 
lent of original fragrance, and undespoiled of her glories 
by art. 



68 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Here where external nature is ever glorious, and man 
is unsophisticated. Thought might erect her temple, 
and the gifted devotees of all nations would prostrate 
themselves in reverence at her altar. 

We are rich in legendary lore. Our forefathers were 
men whose exploits are yet unrecorded ; and our history 
is replete with amazing and spirit-stirring encounters. 

Here, then, is an exhaustless field, on which the poet, 
the philosopher, and the novelist, may gather unfading 
laurels. 

Where is the spirit that would not prefer feasting on 
banquets tending to the healthful action of mind and 
morals, to tasting the sickly viands of artificiality, which 
vitiate the taste and infuse poison into the very blood 
of genius ? 

We hope the day is not in a far distant future, when 
genius will seize upon the exhaustless treasured above, 
beneath and around us. When that day shall have 
arrived, the death dirge of those evils, which, we have 
said, have been engrafted upon the literature of the age, 
will be sounded, and they will cease to enervate mind 
and corrupt morals. It will be the millenium of mind 
to all who have the capacities to appreciate it, and the 
full glories of triumphant thought will be revealed in 
merited splendor. — Mirror, 



TV.— ADJECTIVES. 

An Adjective is a word used with a noun to express 
a quality of the thing named or something attributed to 
the noun, or to limit or define it, or to specify or de- 
scribe a thing as distinct from something else ; as, Hand- 



ADJECTIVES. 69 

some lady ; Honorable men ; Pretty children ; The 
book ; This pen, etc. 

Adjectives have three degrees of comparison, the 
Positive, Comparative and Superlative. 

The Positive Degree expresses, without increasing or 
diminishing, the quality of a noun ; as, Dear child ; 
Great house ; Mild temper ; Beautiful day, etc. 

The Comparative Degree expresses the quality of a 
noun in a higher or lower degree, contrasting with the 
Positive ; as, DearER child ; Greafan house ; Mildm, 
temper ; more Beautiful day, etc. 

The Superlative Degree declares the highest or low- 
est degree of contrast ; as, DearEST child ; GreatoST 
house ; MildnsT temper ; most Beautiful day, etc. 

By adding ish to the Positive degree it forms an in- 
definite comparison ; as, Blackis/i, foolish, softish, etc. 

The adverb rather expresses a small degree of a 
quality ; as, Bather pretty. 

Adjectives of one syllable are generally compared by 
adding er and est to the Positive ; as, Colder, coldest ; 
Higher, highest; Younger, youngest; but when the 
word ends with e, r and st are only added ; as, Braver, 
bravest, etc. 

Adjectives of more than one syllable are mostly com- 
pared in connection with more for the Comparative and 
most for the Superlative ; as, More desirable, more 
righteous ; Most delightful, most holy, etc. 

Adjectives of two syllables ending with y, e silent, or 
accented on the last syllable, are generally compared by 
er and est ; as, Pretty, prettier, prettied ; Able, abler, 
ablest 



to 



AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 



Adjectives decreasing from the Positive are compared 
by less in the Comparative and least in the Superla- 
tive ; as, Comely, less comely, least comely ; Wise, less 
wise, least wise, etc. 

Some adjectives are compared irregularly ; as, 



Positive. 




Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Bad, ill 


or evil, 


Worse, 


Worst. 


Tore, 




Former, 


First. 


Good, 




Better, 


Best. 


Late, 




Latter, 


Latest or last. 


Little, 




Less,* 


Least. 


Much or 


many, 


More, 


Most. 


Near, 




Nearer, 


Nearest or next. 


Old, 




Older or elder, 


Oldest or eldest. 



Some adjectives do not admit of comparison ; as, All, 
an, chief, circular, extreme, first, fifth, infinite, per- 
fect, perpendicular, round, such, square, supreme, 
true, universal, etc. 

Some adjectives which, in their literal signification, 
do not admit of increase or diminution, are, by good 
speakers and writers, compared; as, Accurate, com- 
plete, honest, just, etc. 

Adjectives preceded by very, exceedingly, divinely, 
etc., are in the Superlative degree by eminence; as, 
Very cold ; Exceedingly profane ; JExtremelj dark ; 
Divinely fair, etc. 

* Lesser, a corruption so established as not to be discarded, 
is sometimes used for the Comparative ; as, God made the lesser 
light to rule the night; The lesser Asia, etc., used by some 
authors in writing. 



ADJECTIVES. 71 

Numeral Adjectives are of two kinds : Cardinal, 
used in counting ; as, One, two, three, etc. ; Ordinal, 
used for numbering ; as, First, second, third, etc. 

An Adjective, without a noun, preceded by the, be- 
comes a noun in signification, or belongs to a noun un- 
derstood ; as, The righteous will be saved ; The 
wicked will be punished, etc. 

Definitive or specifying Adjectives are, by some au- 
thors in America, called Adjective Pronouns ; but pro- 
nouns stand for nouns, and never belong to them. Ad- 
jectives belong to nouns, and never stand for them ; 
hence the impropriety of Pronominal adjectives. 

Specifying Adjectives are of four classes — viz : Lim- 
iting, Demonstrating, Describing and Distributing. 

A Limiting Adjective qualifies a noun, though not 
always definite ; as, She is a lady ; The boy obeys his 
father ; Seven days make one week. 

Demonstrating Adjectives definitely point out the per- 
sons or things to which they refer ; as, This lady is my 
sister ; That man is a stranger ; These boys are my 
class-mates ; Those men are soldiers ; Yon house is 
(where) he lives, etc. 

Describing Adjectives qualify the nouns to which they 
belong ; as, He gave me a large apple ; His wife is a 
beautiful woman ; She is kind, etc. 

Distributing Adjectives relate to persons or things sep- 
arately that make up a number. They are each, every, 
either, and sometimes neither; as, Each scholar is 
present ; Every person should consider his latter end ; 
Did you see either ; Neither did I hear, etc. 



12 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

A or an limits the noun generally to one of a kind, 
but not definitely ; as, A minister ; A home ; An oracle ; 
so also with collective nouns ; as, A drove ; An assem- 
bly. A is also used with plural nouns, preceded by 
such adjectives as dozen, few, great many, hundred, 
thousand, etc. An is used before vowels and silent h. 

The refers and points out particular nouns — singular 
or plural — in a definite manner ; as, The boy, the 
boys ; The man, the men ; The river ; The moun- 
tains, etc. 

iormer, latter and yon are, by some American au- 
thors, considered demonstrative adjectives. 

Indefinite adjectives refer to their objects indefinitely ; 
they are a, all, an, another, any, both, other, etc. 



MODEL FOR CLASSIFYING AND PARSING. — Glass COUClir. 

Charles teaches American Grammar. 

Charles is a noun ; teaches is a verb ; American is an adjective ; 
Grammar is a noun. 

Charles . . is a noun, proper, masculine gender, third person, 
singular number, and nominative case to teaches, 
according to Eule 1. 

Teaches . . is an irregular verb, transitive, indicative mode, 
present tense, third person, singular number, agree- 
ing with its nominative Charles, according to 
Eule 2. 

American is a describing adjective that cannot be compared, 
and belongs to Grammar, according to Kule 3. 
Adjectives belong to nouns expressed or understood. 



MODEL AND EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 73 

Grammar . is a noun, common, of the neuter gender, third 
person, singular number, and the objective case, 
governed by teachers, according to Rule 10. 



The pretty babe smiles. 

The is an adjective; pretty is an adjective; babe is a noun; 
smiles is a verb. 

The . . is a limiting adjective, and belongs to babe, according 
to Eule 3. 

Pretty is a describing adjective, of the positive degree (decline), 
and belongs to babe, according to Rule 3. 

Babe . . is a noun, common, of the masculine or feminine gen- 
der, third person, singular number, and nominative 
to the verb smiles, according to Rule 1. 

Smiles . is a regular verb, intransitive, indicative mode, pres- 
ent tense, third person, singular number, agreeing 
with its nominative babe, according to Rule 10. 



exercises for classification and parsing. 

An apple. Blue sky. Black cloud. Clear day. 
Fragrant flowers. Green leaves. Large trees. Weak 
coffee. A good child. Beautiful little girls. Naughty 
disobedient boys. Poor old horses. Six rainy days. 
Prank is modest. George was brave. John was soph- 
omorical. The benevolent lady. The silent shades. 
Her delicate cheek. Its beautiful color. A benevo- 
lent man helps indigent beggars. Studious scholars 
learn long lessons. The setting sun makes a beautiful 



74 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

appearance. The variegated rainbow appears more 
beautiful. 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 

Washington Resigning his Commission. — " The 
great events on which my resignation depended having 
at length taken place, I have now the honor of offering 
my sincere congratulations to Congress, and of present- 
ing myself before them, to surrender into their hands the 
trust committed to me, and to claim the indulgence of 
retiring from the service of my country. 

" Happy in the confirmation of our independence and 
sovereignty, and pleased with the opportunity afforded 
the United States of becoming a respectable nation, I 
resign with satisfaction the appointment I accepted with 
diffidence ; a diffidence in my abilities to accomplish so 
arduous a task, which, however, was superseded by a 
confidence in the rectitude of our cause, the support of 
the supreme power of the Union, and the patronage of 
Heaven." George Washington. 

Influence of Slavery. — The whole commerce be- 
tween master and slave is a perpetual exercise of the 
most boisterous passions ; the most unremitting despot- 
ism on the one part, and degrading submissions on the 
other. Our children see this, and learn to imitate it ; 
for man is an imitative animal. This quality is the 
germ of all education in him. Prom his cradle to his 
grave he is learning to do what he sees others do. If a 
parent could find no motive, either in his philanthropy 
or his self-love, for restraining the intemperance of pas- 
sion towards his slave, it should always be a sufficient 
one that his child is present. But generally it is not 
sufficient. The parent storms, the child looks on, 
catches the lineaments of wrath, puts on the same airs 
in the circle of smaller slaves, gives loose to his worst 



ADVERBS. 75 

passions, and thus nursed, educated, and daily exercised 
in tyranny, cannot but be stamped by it with odious 
peculiarities. The man must be a prodigy who can re- 
tain his manners and morals undepraved by such circum- 
stances. Thomas Jefferson. 



V.— ADVEKBS. 

An Adverb is a word used to qualify a verb, adjec- 
tive, another adverb, or (participle ;) as, Naomi speaks 
distinctly ; she is remarkably eloquent, and reads very 
correctly ; when speaking, she is very fascinating. 

According to the signification of Adverbs, they are 
divided into five general classes, as follows : Cause, 
Manner, Place, Quality and Time. 

1. Adverbs of Cause interrogates ; as, How, when, 
whence, where, wherefore, whither, why, etc. 

2. Adverbs of Manner answer the question how ? as, 
Certainly, doubtless, elegantly, fairly, fluently, just- 
ly, nay, nearly, nowise, so, verily, wisely, yes, etc. 

3. Adverbs of Place answer the questions where ? 
whither ? whence ? as, Above, back, below, down- 
ward, here, somewhere, yonder, etc. 

4. Adverbs of Quality answer the questions how ? 
how much ? how good ? as, Chiefly, exceedingly, 
greatly, mainly, perfectly, quite, too, totally, very, 
wholly, etc. 

5. Adverbs of Time answer the questions when? how 



76 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

long ? how often ? as, Always, continually, ever, 
frequently, often, then, yesterday, yet, hereafter, 
since, soon, etc. 

Some adverbs have three degrees of comparison ; as, 
Soon, sooner, soonest; Beautifully, more beauitfully, 
most beautifully. 

An Adverbial phrase consists of two or more words, 
which, taken together, perform the office of an adverb ; 
as, A few days ago ; A great deal ; A little; As soon 
as ; At most ; At once ; By no means ; In vain ; None 
at all ; On high ; The better ; The more, etc. 



MODELS FOR CLASSIFYING AND PARSING. 

The choir sings Psalms sweetly. 

The is an adjective ; choir is a noun ; sings is a verb ; Psalms 
is a noun ; sweetly is an adverb. 

The . . is a limiting adjective, and belongs to choir, accord- 
ing to Eule 3. 

Choir . . is a collective noun, conveying the idea of unity, of 
the masculine and feminine gender, third person, 
singular number, according to Kule 20. When a col- 
lective noun conveys the idea of unity, its pronoun and 
verb must be singular. It is nominative to sings, 
according to Eule 1. 

Sings . . is an irregular verb,* transitive, indicative mode, 
present tense, third person, singular number, agree- 
ing with its nominative choir, according to Rule 2. 

Psalms . is a noun, common, of the neuter gender, third per- 
son, plural number, and in the objective case, gov- 
erned by sings, according to Rule 10. 

* May conjugate through the tenses of the Indicatiye Mode . 



MODEL FOR PARSING. 7T 

Sweetly is an adverb of manner, and qualifies sings, accord- 
ing to Kule 13. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, ad- 
verbs and participles. 

Hugh will be here as soon as the cars arrive. 

Hugh is a noun; will be is a verb; here is an adverb; as soon 
as is an adverbial phrase; the is an adjective; cars is a noun; 
arrive is a verb. 

Hugh . . . is a noun, proper, etc., according to Eule 1. 

Will . . . is an auxiliary to be. 

Will be . is an irregular verb, intransitive, indicative mode, 
future tense, third person, singular number, agree- 
ing with its nominative Hugh, according to 
Kule 2. 

Here ... is an adverb of place, and qualifies will be, accord- 
ing to Eule 13. 

As soon as is an adverbial phrase, qualifying arrive, accord- 
ing to Kule 13. 

The .... is a limiting adjective, and belongs to cars, accord- 
ing to Kule 3. 

Cars .... is a noun, common, of the neuter gender, third 
person, plural number, and nominative case to 
arrive, according to Kule 1. 

Arrive ... is a regular verb, intransitive, indicative mode, 
future tense, third person, plural number, agreeing 
with its nominative cars, according to Kule 2. 

EXERCISES FOR CLASSIFYING AND PARSING. 

Albert acts wisely. Andrew ran hastily. Arabella 

came to-day. Arthur will perhaps go home to-morrow. 

Benjamin shall know hereafter. Cain wickedly slew his 

brother. Great men are not always wise. He reads 

too little. He might be very highly esteemed. James 
*4 



78 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

may have acted prudently. Let him that is athirst 
drink freely. No, indeed. Peter fell fast asleep. She 
is a very good woman. The lady can sing very sweetly. 
You can be there before the cars leave, if you hurry. 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 

Plain before Sinai. — As we advanced, the valley 
still opened wider and wider, with a gentle ascent, and 
became full of shrubs and tufts of herbs, shut in on each 
side by lofty granite ridges, with rugged, shattered peaks 
a thousand feet high, while the face of Horeb rose di- 
rectly before us. Both my companion and myself in- 
voluntarily exclaimed : " Here is room enough for a 
large encampment ! n Reaching the top of the ascent, 
or water-shed, a fine broad plain lay before us, sloping 
down gently toward the S.S.E., inclosed by rugged and 
venerable mountains of dark granite, stern, naked, splin- 
tered peaks and ridges, of indescribable grandeur, and 
terminated at the distance of more than a mile by the 
bold and awful front of Horeb, rising perpendicularly, 
in frowning majesty, from twelve to fifteen hundred feet 
in height. It was a scene of solemn grandeur, wholly 
unexpected, and such as we have never seen ; and the 
associations which at the moment rushed upon our 
minds were almost overwhelming. As we went on, new 
points of interest were continually opening to our view. 

Edward Eobinson. 



YI.— PREPOSITIONS. 

A Preposition is used to connect words, and to show 
the relation between a noun or pronoun following it 
and some other word in the sentence ; as, He went 



PREPOSITIONS. 



79 



about the city ; Before honor is humility ; She came 
with me from Paris to Washington, etc. 

A Preposition must always govern an objective case ; 
as, Go to him ; He was beyond Jordan. 

The part of a sentence before a preposition is called 
the antecedent term ; the part after it, the subsequent 
term. 

Those words, in our language called prepositions, 
placed before nouns or pronouns to which they refer, 
showing their relation, are mostly contained in the follow- 
ing list : 



About, 

Above, 

Across, 

After, 

Against, 

Ainid-stf, 

Amongst, 

Around, 

At, 

Athwart, 

Before, 

Behind, 



Below, 

Beneath, 

Beside, 

Besides, 

Between, 

Betwixt, 

Beyond, 

By, 

Down, 

For, 

From, 

In, 



Into, 


Toward, 


of, 


Under, 


Off, 


Underneath, 


On, 


Until, 


Over, 


Up, 


Past, 


Upon, 


Round, 


With, 


Since, 


Within, 


Through, 


Without. 


Throughout, 




Till, 




To, 





Obs. — After, before, till, until, etc., are sometimes used as 
prepositions, and sometimes as adverbs. 



relations of prepositions. 

Prepositions, in connecting words, show various re- 
lations between objects, which may be classed under the 
following appropriate terms, designating the analogy of 
each class ; as, Causative, Instrumental, Intimatei 
Local, Opposite, Primary, Remote, Superior, Subor- 
dinate, etc. 



80 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

1. The connection of words by Prepositions may show a 
Causitive relation hetw eon objects; as, God in the beginning 
created the heaven and the earth ; In him was life, and the life 
was the light of men. 

2. The connection of words by Prepositions may show an 
Instrumental relation ; as, Fire is extinguished by water ; He 
swore by Heaven ; I will be present by attorney ; She killed 
him with a dagger ; It was struck with lightning ; Sanctify 
them through thy truth, etc. 

3. The connection of words by Prepositions may show an 
Intimate relation ; as, Come and sit beside me ; She sits on his 
knee with her arm around his neck ; They live in peace among 
themselves. 

4. The connection of words by Prepositions may show a 
Local relation] as, Joseph lives at home; They go through Co- 
lumbus to Pittsburg ; Webster's dictionary lies on the table in 
the study; "We came from Pennsylvania to Ohio, etc. 

5. The connection of words by Prepositions may show an 
Opposite relation ; as, Brother Charles is across the street ; His 
hand will be against every man ; James was over the river, etc. 

6. The connection of words by Prepositions may show a Pri- 
mary relation] as, Adam, the first of men, transgressed ; Before 
Abraham was, I am ; He was before me ; We often forget the 
end for which we were created, and also the original state of 
man, etc. 

7. The connection of words by Prepositions may show a Re- 
mote relation; as, Benjamin is behind the times; From Adam, 
we incline to evil ; He lives without friends , It is beyond my 
comprehension; She is past recovery, etc. 

8. The connection of words by. Prepositions may show a Su- 
perior relation ; as, God rules over all things; It is beyond dis- 
pute ; The eagle soars above the clouds ; The Majesty on high. 

9. The connection of words by Prepositions may show a Sub- 
ordinate relation; as, A traitor is beneath respect; Arnold died 
without friends; He was an officer under Washington, etc. 



EXERCISES. 81 

MODEL FOR CLASSIFYING AND PARSING. 

She came to America. 

She is a pronoun ; came is a verb ; to is a, preposition ; Amer- 
ica is a noun. 

She . . is a personal pronoun, of the feminine gender, third 
person, singular number, agreeing with the noun re- 
presented, according to Eule 6 ; and nominative case 
to came, according to Kule 1. 

Came . is an irregular verb, intransitive, indicative mode, 
pre-present tense, etc. 

To ... is a preposition. — (Prepositions connect words, and 
show the relation between objects.) — To connects and 
shows a local relation between she and America. 

America is a noun, proper, of tbe neuter gender, third person, 
singular number, and objective case, governed by to, 
according to Kule 15. Prepositions govern the object- 



EXERCISES FOR CLASSIFICATION AND PARSING. 

Buchanan lives in Washington. Be kind to all men. 
Be not overcome of evil. Charles is in the house. 
David will go with his father. Henry went from Bos- 
ton to Europe. I am traveling toward the south. She 
is by herself. We live over the Ohio in Virginia. You 
must remember this throughout your whole life. 



analytical exercises. 

The American Chief's Farewell to his Officers. 
— " With a heart full of love and gratitude, I now take 
leave of you. I most devoutly wish that your latter 



82 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

days may be as prosperous and happy as your former 
ones have been glorious and honorable. I cannot come 
to each of you to take my leave, but shall be obliged to 
you if each of you will come and take me by the hand." 

George Washington. 

Past and Present Politics. — With the reannexa- 
tion of Florida to the Anglo-American dominion, the 
recognized extension of our western limit to the shores 
of the Pacific, and the partition of those new acquisi- 
tions between slavery and freedom, closed Monroe's first 
term of office ; and with it a marked era in our history. 
All the old landmarks of party, uprooted, as they had 
been, first by the embargo and the war with England, 
and then by peace in Europe, had since, by the bank 
question, the internal improvement, and the tariff ques- 
tion, been completely superseded, and almost wholly 
swept away. At the Ithuriel touch of the Missouri 
discussion, the slave interest, hitherto hardly recognized 
as a distinct element in our system, had started up por- 
tentous and dilated, disavowing the very fundamental 
principles of modern democracy, and again threatening, 
as in the Federal Convention, the dissolution of the 
Union. It is from this point, already beginning, indeed, 
to fade away in the distance, that our politics of to-day 
take their departure. Richard Hildreth. 



VIL— CONJUNCTIONS. 

A Conjunction is used to connect words or sen- 
tences ; as, Tou and I will stay ; but John or Jane 
will go. 

Conjunctions are divided into two classes : Copula- 
tive and Disjunctive. 



- CONJUNCTIONS. 83 

A Copulative conjunction connects or continues a 
sentence, and implies an addition, supposition, reason 
or cause, etc. ; as, Emma reads and writes ; I will go 
for her, because she desires to come. 

The principal copulative conjunctions are, And, be- 
cause, for, if therefore, wherefore, etc. 

A Disjunctive conjunction connects words or contin- 
ues a sentence, but denotes opposition of meaning ; as , 
A sojourner, though humble, yet so independent, that 
neither vices of acquaintances, nor fear from jealousies, 
or fierce persecutions, mar his integrity. 

The principal disjunctives are, Although, but, either, 
neither, nor, or, though, unless, yet, etc. 

Sometimes conjunctions are followed by correspond- 
ing conjunctions ; as, Neither he nor I am (be) able to 
do it. 



MODEL FOR CLASSIFYING AND PARSING. 

(Class all concur.) 

Arabella and Cynthia are good children, because they 
obey their parents ; but Abner is neither agreeable 
nor worthy of respect, for he disobeys his mother. 

Arabella is a noun ; and is a conjunction ; Cynthia is a noun ; 
are is a verb; good is an adjective; children is a noun; be- 
cause is a conjunction ; they is a pronoun ; obey is a verb ; 
their is a pronoun ; parents is a noun ; but is a conjunction ; 
Abner is a noun ; is is a verb ; neither is a conjunction ; 
agreeable is an adjective ; nor is a conjunction ; worthy is an 
adjective; of is a preposition; respect is a noun; for is a 
conjunction ; he is a pronoun ; disobeys is a verb ; his is a 
pronoun ; mother is a noun. 



84 



AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 



Arabella . is a noun, proper, feminine gender, third person, 
singular number, and nominative to are, accord- 
ing to Rule 1. 

And ... is a copulative conjunction, and connects Arabella 
with Cynthia, according to Kule 16. Conjunctions 
connect words or sentences. 

Cynthia . is a noun, proper, feminine gender, third person, 
singular number, with Arabella connected, is in 
the nominative case, and requires a verb (are) in the 
plural, according to Rule 22. Two or more nomi- 
natives taken in connection must have a verb in the 
plural. 

Are . . . is an irregular verb, intransitive, (inflect,) indicative 
mode, present tense, third person, plural number, 
of the verb be, and agreeing with its nominatives 
Arabella and Cynthia, according to Rule 2. 

Good . . . is a describing adjective, of the positive degree, (ir- 
regular in declension — good, better, best,) and be- 
longs to children, according to Rule 3. 

Children . is a noun, common, of the masculine or feminine 
gender, (in this sentence it is feminine,) third per- 
son, plural number, and nominative case after are, 
according to Rule 11. The verb BE and its inflec- 
tions may have the same case after as before them. 

Because . is a copulative conjunction, expressing a reason and 
connecting sentences, according to Rule 16. 

They ... is a personal pronoun, of the feminine gender, third 
person, plural number, agreeing with Arabella 
and Cynthia, for which it is used, according to 
Rule 6 ; and nominative to obey, according to 
Rule 1. 

Obey . . is a regular verb, transitive, etc., agreeing with its 
nominative they, according to Rule 2. 

Their ... is a personal pronoun, of the feminine gender, third 
person, plural number, agreeing with Arabella 



MODEL FOR PARSING. 



85 



and Cynthia, for which it is used according to 
Kule 6. It is in the possessive case, governed by 
parents, according" to Kule 8. The possessive case 
is governed by the noun possessed. 

Parents . . is a noun, common, of the masculine and feminine 
gender, etc., according to Rule 10. 

But . . . is a disjunctive conjunction, here used to express op- 
position of meaning and connect sentences, accord- 
ing to Rule 16. 

Abner . . is a noun, proper, masculine gender, etc., accord- 
ing to Rule 1. 

Is . . . is an irregular verb, intransitive, etc., according to 
Rule 2. 

Neither . is a disjunctive conjunction, used to express opposi- 
tion of meaning and continue a sentence, showing 
an opposite meaning of agreeable and worthy, 
according to Rule 16. 

Agreeable is a describing adjective, etc., according to Rule 3. 

Nor . . is a disjunctive conjunction, used to express opposi- 
tion of meaning, and connects agreeable to wor- 
thy, according to Rule 16. 

Worthy . is a describing adjective, etc., according to Rule 3. 

Of . . . . is & preposition, connecting worthy and respect, 
showing a remote relation between them and 
Abner. 

Respect . is a noun, common, neuter gender, third person, sin- 
gular number, and objective case, governed by or, 
according to Rule 15. Prepositions govern the ob- 
jective case m 

For . . . is a copulative conjunction, expressing a reason, and 
connecting sentences, according to Rule 16. 

He . . is a personal pronoun, of the masculine gender, 
third person, singular number, agreeing with Ab- 
ner, accordng to Rule 6 ; and nominative to dis- 
obeys, according to Rule 1. 
5 



86 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Disobeys . is an irregular verb, transitive, etc. — Kule. 2 
His . . is a personal pronoun, of the masculine gender, third 
person, singular number, agreeing with Abner, ac- 
cording to Rule 6. It is in the possessive case, 
governed by mother, according to Eule 8. 
Mother . . is a noun, common, of the feminine gender, third 
person, singular number, and objective case, gov- 
erned by disobeys, according to Rule 10. 

EXERCISES FOR CLASSIFYING AND PARSING. 

Adaline and Eliza are at home. George or Henry 
will go. I will call for John, if he is in the house. 
James will succeed, because he is industrious. Because 
he is industrious, he will succeed. He did accomplish 
it, but not very successfully. I come to you in the 
spirit of peace, yet you will not receive me. Cry aloud; 
for he is a god ; either he is talking, or he is on a jour- 
ney, or perhaps he sleepeth. We cannot thrive, unless 
we are industrious and frugal. 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 

The Grave. — If thou art a child, and hast ever added 
a sorrow to the soul, or a furrow to the silvered brow of 
an affectionate parent — if thou art a husband, and hast 
ever caused the fond bosom that ventured its whole hap- 
piness in thy arms to doubt one moment of thy kindness 
or thy truth — if thou art a friend, and hast ever wronged, 
in thought, or word, or deed, the spirit that generously 
confided in thee — if thou art a lover, and hast ever 
given one unmerited pang to that true heart which now 
lies cold and still beneath thy feet — then be sure that 



EXERCISES FOR PARSING. 87 

every unkind look, every ungracious word, and every 
ungentle action, will come thronging back upon thy 
memory, and knocking dolefully at thy soul ; then be 
sure that thou wilt lie down sorrowing and repentant on 
the grave, and utter the unheard groan, and pour the 
unavailing tear; more deep, more bitter, because un- 
heard and unavailing. 

Then weave thy chaplet of flowers, and strew the 
beauties of nature about the grave ; console thy broken 
spirit, if thou canst, with these tender, yet futile tributes 
of regret ; but take warning by the bitterness of this thy 
contrite affliction over the dead, and henceforth be more 
faithful and affectionate in the discharge of thy duties to 
the living. Washington Irving. 



VIII.— PARTICIPLES. 

A participle is a word so called because it partakes 
of the properties of a noun and of a verb ; as, Having, 
making, etc. 

Participles become nouns by prefixing the to them ; 
as, The having of friends ; The making of peace. 

All participles do not partake of the properties of a 
noun, as the passive or perfect participle, held, made, 
having made. 

Participles sometimes lose the properties of a verb and 
become describing adjectives; as, Willing, engaging, 
accomplished, etc.; as, A willing heart; Engaging 
manners ; An accomplished scholar, etc. 

There are three Participles — the Present, the Per- 
fect, and the Compound Perfect. All used in an ac- 
tive and passive sense. 



88 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

The Present Participle denotes being or action con- 
tinued or progressing, but not perfected. It always ends 
with ing ; as, Being, moving, sitting, passing ; Being 
heard ; Being seen. 

There are many words ending with ing that are not 
participles; such as morning, evening, uninteresting, 
etc. To distinguish participles, it will be remembered 
that all participles are derived from verbs ; thus, from 
instruct, instructing; labor, laboring; rejoice, re- 
joicing, etc. 

The Perfect participle denotes being or action per- 
fected or finished. When derived from a Regular verb, 
it corresponds with the Present tense, always ending 
with ed ; as, Loved, hated, abstracted, etc. This parti- 
ciple may always be distinguished by its making sense 
with being ; thus, Being loved, being hated, etc. 

The Compound Perfect participle expresses what 
took plaee before something else mentioned. It is 
formed by placing the Present participle before the 
Perfect participle derived from any verb ; as, Having 
loved, having hated ; Passive, Having been loved, etc. 

Participles have two characters, Active and Passive, 
corresponding to the Active and Passive voice of the 
verb, and are as follows : 

PRESENT. PERFECT. COMPOUND PERFPCT. 

Active. Learning learned having learned. 

Passive. Being learned... learned having been learned. 

Active. Loving .loved having loved. 

Passive. Being loved loved having been loved. 

Active. Teaching taught having taught. 

Passive. Being taught.... taught having been taught. 



PARTICIPLES. 89 

MODEL FOR CLASSIFYING AND PARSING. 

(Class all concur.) 

Having finished the work assigned me, I retire from 
the great theatre of action, and bidding an affectionate 
farewell to this august body, under whose orders I have so 
long acted, I here offer my commission, and take my 
leave of all the employments of public life. — Washing- 
ton's Resignation. 

Having finished is a participle; the is an adjective; work is 
a noun ; assigned is a participle ; me is a pronoun ; lis a pro- 
noun ; retire is a verb ; from is a preposition ; the is an adjec- 
tive; great is an adjective ; theatre is a noun ; of is a preposi- 
tion; action is a noun: and is a conjunction; bidding is a 
participle; an is an adjective; affectionate is an adjective; 
farewell is a noun ; to is a preposition ; this is an adjective ; 
august is an adjective; body is a noun; under is a preposition; 
whose is a pronoun ; orders is a noun ; 7 is a pronoun ; have 
is a verb ; so is an adverb ; long is an adverb ; acted is a verb; J 
is a pronoun ; here is an adverb ; offer is a verb ; my is a pro- 
noun ; commission is a noun ; and is a conjunction ; take is a 
verb ; my is a pronoun ; leave is a noun ; of is a preposition ; 
all is an adjective; employments is a noun ; of is a preposition; 
public is an adjective; fo/e is a noun. 

Having finished is a compound perfect participle, derived 
from the verb finish, present, finishing; 
perfect finished ; compound perfect, hav- 
ing finished ; and refers to I, according to 
Rule 17. Participles refer to nouns or 
pronouns expressed or understood. 



90 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

The is a limiting adjective, and belongs to 

work, according to Kule 3. 

Work is a noun, common, of the neuter gender, 

third person, singular number, and objec- 
tive case, governed by the transitive 
participle having finished, according 
to Rule 18. Participles retain the regi- 
men of the verbs from which they are 
derived. 

Assigned is a perfect participle, passive, derived 

from the verb assign, present assigning, 
perfect assigned, and refers to work, ac- 
cording to Eule 1 7. 

Me is a personal pronoun, of the first person, 

singular number, and objective case, ac- 
cording to Rule 16. The objective case is 
often governed by a preposition understood. 

I is a personal pronoun, of the first person, 

singular number, and nominative to re- 
tire, according to Rule 1. 

Retire is a regular verb, intransitive, indicative 

mode, present tense, first person, singular 
number, and agrees with its nominative 
I, according to Rule 2. 

From is a preposition etc. — showing a remote 

relation, etc. 

The is a limiting adjective, etc. 

Great is a describing adjective, etc. 

Theatre is a noun, etc. 

Of is a preposition — showing a superior rela- 
tion, etc. 

Action is a noun, etc. 

And is a conjunction, etc. 

Bidding is a present participle, derived from the 

verb bid, present bidding, and refers to 
I, according to Rule 1 7, etc. 



PARTICIPLES. 91 

EXERCISES FOR CLASSIFYING AND PARSING. 

He is laboring for wages. I heard a lady singing 
deli ghtf ally. John was playing on a violin. I have 
seen many a promising youth ruined by the use of 
tobacco and intoxicating liquors. The small boys hav- 
ing recited I dismissed school. The snow having 
abated we pursued our journey. We saw a herd of 
cattle grazing in a meadow. 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 

The Response to Washington's Resignation by 
the President of Congress, Mifflin. 

" Called upon by your country to defend its invaded 
rights, you accepted the sacred charge before it had 
formed alliances, and whilst it was without friends or a 
government to support you. 

" You have conducted the great military contest with 
wisdom and fortitude, invariably regarding the rights 
of the civil power through all disasters and changes. 
You have, by the love and confidence of your fellow- 
citizens, enabled them to display their martial genius, 
and transmit their fame to posterity. You have per- 
severed, till these United States, aided by a magnani- 
mous king and nation, have been enabled, under a just 
Providence, to close the war in safety, freedom, and in- 
dependence ; on which happy event we sincerely join 
you in congratulations. 

" Having defended the standard of liberty in this 
new world, having taught a lesson useful to those who 
inflict, and to those who feel oppression, you retire from 



92 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

the great theatre of action with the blessings of your 
fellow-citizens ; but the glory of your virtues will not 
terminate with your military command ; it will continue 
to animate remotest ages. We feel with you our obli- 
gations to the army in general, and will particularly 
charge ourselves with the interest of those confidential 
officers who have attended your person to this affecting 
moment. 

" We join you in commending the interests of our 
dearest country to the protection of Almighty God, 
beseeching Him to dispose the hearts and minds of its 
citizens to improve the opportunity afforded them of 
becoming a happy and respectable nation ; and for you 
we address to Him our earnest prayers, that a life so 
beloved may be fostered with all His care ; that your 
days may be happy as they have been illustrious, and 
that He will finally give you that reward which this 
world cannot give." 

" The United States, in Congress assembled, receive, 
with emotions too affecting for utterance, the solemn 
resignation of the authority under which you have led 
their troops with success through a perilous and doubt- 
ful war. — David Ramsey. 



IX. INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections are words used to express strong emo- 
tion or sudden excitement of the mind ; as, Alas ! my 
fate is sealed ; Hail ! glorious liberty ; Hark ! the 
cannon's opening roar; 01 virtue, how amiable thou 
art. 



INTERJECTIONS. 



93 



Interjections are nothing more than instinctive vocal 
sounds produced by excitement of the mind ; they have 
no grammatical arrangement with other words, and 
scarcely deserve a classification in written language. 
Most any word may become an Interjection when used 
with emotion ; as, Astonishing ! shocking ! strange ! 
Also a detached phrase, indicating strong feeling, be- 
comes an interjection ; as, Ungrateful ivretch I etc. 

The free use of Interjections in ordinary conversa- 
tion indicates thoughtlessness and weakness of intellect, 
etc. The following is a list of Interjections in com- 
mon use : 



Adieu ! 


Ha! 


Ho! 


O brave ! 


Ah! 


Hail! 


Hum! 


strange ! 


Aha! 


Halloo ! 


Hush! 


Pshaw ! 


Alas! 


Hark! 


Hurrah ! 


See! 


Alack ! 


Hey! 


Lo! 


Terrible ! 


Away ! 


Hey-dey ! 


0! 


Tremendous ! 


Begone ! 


Hist! 


Oh! 


Well-a-day ! 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 

Ah ! pity the helpless. A horse ! A horse ! My 
kingdom for a horse ! Ah ! the misery of suspense. 
Behold ! the stripes and stars. His reason, alas ! has 
failed him. Life ! life ! only let me live. Oh ! the 
desolation of bereavement. Oh ! bear me to some soli- 
tary cell ! Arise ! Lord ! God ! lift up thy hand. 



THE WRECK OF THE ARIEL. 



" Poor wretch ! " muttered his companion ; " you 
must go, like the rest of us ; when the death-watch is 
called, none can skulk from the muster." 



94 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

" I can swim," Dillon continued, rushing, with fran- 
tic eagerness, to the side of the wreck. " Is there no 
billet of wood, no rope, that I can take with me ?" 

" None ; everything has been cut away or carried off 
by the sea. If ye are about to strive for your life, take 
with ye a stout heart and a clean conscience, and trust 
the rest to God ! » 

" God ! " echoed Dillon, in the madness of his 
frenzy ; "I know no God ! there is no God that knows 
me!" 

" Peace ! " said the deep tones of the cockswain, in 
a voice that seemed to speak in the elements ; " blas- 
phemer, peace ! " 

The heavy groaning, produced by the water, in the 
timbers of the Ariel, at that moment added its impulse 
to the raging feelings of Dillon, and he cast himself 
headlong into the sae. — James F. Cooper. 



THE CLASSIFIC CHARACTER OF 
WORDS. 

The Grammatical character of a word is understood 
by its formation and meaning, or the office it performs 
in a sentence. The same word is often used in differ- 
ent parts of speech ; and the class to which a word 
belongs can only be determined by the office it performs, 
or the sense in which it is used, as may be seen from 
the few following examples : 







CLASSIFICATION. 95 


Honor . 


is 


sometimes 


a noun ; as, Our nation's 
honor. 


a 


a 


n 


a verb ; as, Honor thy father. 


Judge . 


ti 


tt 


a noun ; as, The just Judge. 


n 


n 


n 


a verb ; as, Judge not, be 
not judged. 


Love . 


tt 


tt 


a noun ; as, God is love. 


it 


a 


it 


a verb ; as, Christians love 
God. 


Play ■ 


tt 


a 


a noun ; as, Boys love play. 


a 


a 


tt 


a verb ; as, Boys play care- 
fully. 


Present 


tt 


a 


a noun ; as, She received a 

PRESENT. 


a 


a 


tt 


a verb ; as, They present a 
petition. 


t( 


a 


a 


an adjective ; as, The pres- 
ent tense, etc. 



Obs. — Classifying words like the foregoing examples can 
easily be performed by the meaning ; the distinction of the 
following list of examples is less obvious, though determined 
on the same principle : 

After is sometimes an adjective ; as, An after pe- 
riod. 

" " " an adverb ; as, I will go after 

you return. 

" " •' a preposition ; as, He will come 

after me. 

Obs. — Above, before, beneath, etc., are also sometimes ad- 
verbs and sometimes prepositions. 

For . is sometimes a preposition ; as, He fought 
for our liberty. 
" u " a conjunction ; as, I will go, for 

he calls me. 



96 



AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 



More is sometimes an adjective ; as, Send us more 

men. 
" an adverb; as, Israel loved 

Joseph more than all his 

children. 
Much " " a noun ; as, Much, is given, 

much will be required. 
" an adjective ; as, He had much 

money. 
" an adverb ; as, I was much de- 

lighted. 
What " " a pronoun ; as, This is what I 

desired. 
u an adjective ; as, See what colors 

this silk exhibits. 
" an adverb; as, What by force 

and what by persuasion. 
" an interjection; as, What! 

another, and still the same. 
Yet " " an adverb ; as, He has not yet 

come. 
" a conjunction; as, Yet I say 

unto you, rejoice. 



DERIVATION. 



In Grammar Derivation is that part of Philology 
which treats of the drawing or tracing of a word or 
words from the root or original, comprehending the 
various inflections and modifications of words, showing 
how they are formed from their simple roots, etc. 

Our language in the United States being of a Poly- 
glot character, the roots or radicals from which many 
of our words emanate may be traced through various 



DERIVATION. 



91 



tongues ; and from the languages derived of diverse 
nations composing our American people — primitives 
have been collected from which we may have a vocabu- 
lary — peculiar to our country that will give us a correct 
basis for an American literature — and our language is 
not all, nor yet to so great an extent, derived from the 
Anglo-English as to deprive us of a title to our own 
tongue, may be satisfactory — from the few folio w- 
iug specimens of the Anglo-Saxon and English lan- 
guages — written at different periods : 

Alfred, an Anglo-Saxon king, regned from A. D. 
811 to A. D. 901. Language of his day. 



ANGLO-SAXON. 

Earnulf cyninge gefeaght 
with thsem raade-here aer tha 
scip comon, mid East-Frano 
um, and Seaxum, and Bsege- 
rum, and hine genyniode. 
And thry Scottas comon to 
cyninge on anum bate, but an 
selum gerethum, of Hibernia ; 
and thonon hi hi bestselon, 
forthon the hi woldon for 
Godes lufan on eltheodienesse 
bion, hy ne ronton hwser. 



A LITERAL TRANSLATION. 

Earnulf, the king, fought 
with the cavalry ere the ships 
come, with the East-Frances, 
and Saxons, and Bavarians, and 
put them to flight. And 
three Scots came to JElfred, the 
king, in a boat without any 
rowers, from Hibernia, and 
thence they privately with- 
drew, because that they would 
for God's love be in a state of 
pilgrimage, they should not be 
anxious where. 



Edgar, an Anglo-Saxon king, reigned from A. D. 
973 to A. D. 990. Extract from Laws of King Ed- 
gar: 

A LITERAL TRANSLATION. 

We order that each Christian 
man earnestly accustom his 
children to Christianity, and 
teach him the Pater Noster and 
Creed. 



ANGLO-SAXON. 

We lserat that selc christen 
man his beam to christen- 
dome geornlice wsenige, and 
him pater noster and credon 
taece. 



98 



AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 



The following is from an English translation of the 
Scripture by John Wickliff, in the reign of Henry the 
VI., about A. D. 1430, and also our present Polyglot 
translation, printed in Phladelphia, A. D. 1848, 1 John 1. 

That which was from the be- 
ginning, which we have heard, 
which we have seen with our 
eyes, which we have looked 
upon, and our hands have han- 
dled, of the word of life; 

(For the life was manifested, 
and we have seen it and bear 
witness, and show unto you 
that eternal life which was 
with the Father, and was man- 
ifest unto us ; ) 

That which we have seen 
and heard declare we unto 
you, that ye also may have 
fellowship with us; and truly 
our fellowship is with the Fath- 
er, and with his son Jesus Chrit. 

And these things write we un- 
to you that your joy may be full. 

This then is the message 
which we have heard of him, 
and declare unto you, that God 
is light, and in him is no dark- 
ness at all. 

If we say that we have fel- 
lowship with him, and walk in 
darkness, we lie, and do not 
the truth: 

But if we walk in the light, 
as he is in the light, we 
have fellowship one with an- 
other, and the blood of Jesus 
Christ his Son clenseth us from 
all sin. 

If we say that we have no 
sin, we deceive ourselves, and 
th truth is not in us. 



That thing that was fro the 
bigynning, which we herden, 
which we sigen with oure igen, 
which we biheelden and oure 
hondis touchiden of the word 
of liif. and the liif is schewid 
and we saigen, and we witnes- 
sen and tellen to you euerlest- 
ing liif that was anentis the 
fadir and apperide to us. there- 
fore we telien to you that thing 
that we sigen and herden, that 
also ye haue felowschip with 
us and oure felowschip be with 
the fadir and with his sone iesu 
crist. and we writen this thing 
to you, that ye haue ioie, and 
youre ioie be ful. and this is 
the tellying that we herden of 
him and tellen to you, that god 
is ligt, and ther ben no derk 
nessis in hym. if we seien 
that we hau felowschip with 
him, and we wandren in derk- 
nessis, we lien and doen not 
treuthe. but if we walken in 
ligt as also he is in ligt we hau 
felowsehip togidre, and the 
blood of iesu crist his sone 
cleuseth us fro al synne, if we 
seein that we haue no synne we 
disseyuen ussliff, and treuthe is 
not in us. if we knowlechen 
oure synnes, he is feithful and 
iust that he forgyve to us oure 
synnes, and dense us fro al 
wickednesse. and if we seien 
that we hau not synned, we 
maken him a lier, and his word 
is not in us. 



DERIVATION. 99 

DEKIVATXON OF WOKDS. 

Words which we have adopted from other languages 
without change or with slight variations may be 
considered as primitive or radical words in our use, and 
also those, peculiar to our country, or coined by our 
people ; as, American, form, man, etc. 

A word formed by joining a letter or syllable to a 
primitive, to modify its meaning, is a derivitive word ; 
as, American, reform, manly. 

A word formed by uniting two or more entire words 
is a compound word ; as, Inkstand, railroad, school- 
house. 

Words of one class or part of speech are derived 
from various other classes, as follows : 

Nouns are derived from Verbs ; as, From the verb 
love comes lover ; visit, visiter ; wait, waiter, etc. 

Some nouns are derived from adjectives ; as, From 
gentle, gentleness ; meek, meekness ; wicked, wicked- 
ness; wise, wisdom; etc. 

Verbs are derived from Nouns ; as, From the noun 
salt comes "to salt," etc.; also from Adjectives; as, 
From warm, "to warm," etc.; and also from Adverbs; 
as, From the adverb forward, " to forward." Some- 
times verbs are formed by adding en to nouns and more 
especially to adjectives ; as, from length, lengthen ; 
bright, brighten ; short, shorten, etc. 

Adjectives are derived from Nouns, and vary ac- 
cording to their indication. 
Adjectives denoting the matter out of which any- 



100 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

thing is made, are derived from Nouns by adding en ; 
as, From earth, erathen ; oak, oaken ; wood, wooden ; 
wool, woolen, etc. 

Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from 
Nouns by adding ful ; as, From fruit, fruit/W ; sin, 
sinful, etc. 

Adjectives denoting plenty are derived from Nouns 
by adding y; as, From health, healthy; might, 
mighty ; wealth, weathy, etc Also those with some 
kind of diminution are derived from nouns by adding 
some ; as, From light, lightsome ; toil, toilsome ; 
trouble, troublesome, etc. 

Adjectives denoting want are derived from Nouns by 
adding less; as, from care, careZess; joy, joyless; 
worth, worthless, etc. 

Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from Nouns 
by adding ly ; as, from court, courts ; earth, earthZy ; 
man, manfo/, etc. 

Some adjectives are derived from nouns, and some- 
times from other adjectives by adding ish, which im- 
port diminution and similitude ; as, Child, childish ; 
thief, ihieveish; black, blackish; white, whitish, etc. 

Adverbs of quality are derived from Adjectives by 
adding ly or changing le into ly indicating the same 
quality ; as, from base, basefo/ ; glorious, glorious^/ ; 
honorable, honorabfo/, etc. 

The derivation of one class of words from other 
classes is so numerous that it would be extremely diffi- 
cult, and nearly impossible to enumerate them by the 
foregoing method of examples. But from what has 



PREFIXES AND AFFIXES. 101 

been given to illustrate, it will be understood, that the 
primitives of our language are not many, and that the 
derivatives formed by Prefixes and Affixes compose 
the greater number of the words in our usage. 



PREFIXES AND AFFIXES. 

A Prefix is a syllable or syllables joined to the be- 
ginning of a word ; as, ^4-board, anti- Christian, return, 
unwise ; A, anti, re, and un, are prefixes. 

In applying Prefixes to primitives or radicals certain 
changes take place to make the sound more agreeable ; 
as may be understood from the following examples : 

1. The final letter of a Prefix is sometimes omitted; as, Ant- 
arctic for anti-arctic ; co-existent for con-existent, etc. 

2. The final letter of a Prefix is often changed to one which 
will harmonize with the first letter of the primitive word ; as, 
Impious for mpious ; sympathetic for synpahetic, etc. 

3. The final letter of the Prefix generally becomes the same 
as the first letter of the primitive ; as, Ad — approach ; con — 
coflapse; ob — oppose, etc. 

The principal Prefixes which undergo this change are AD 
changed to (ac, af, ag, al, an, ap, as, at]) con — to (com, col, cor;) 
EN — to (ec, ef em;) dis — to (dif, di;) OB — to (oc, of, op ;) SUB — 
to (sue, suf, sug, sup;) syn — to (sym, syl,) etc. 

To show the use and changes of these prefixes they may be 
joined to the following primitives ; as, Joining the changes of 
AD to — credit, -—firm, — gree, — lude, — nex, — peal, — range, 
— sign, — tend, etc. Of con to — mend, — lapse, — red, etc. 
Of dis to —form, digrees. Of en to embrace, etc. Of ex 
to — centre, — fuse, etc. Of ob to — casion, — fer, — pose, etc. 
Of sub to — ceed, —fix, — gest, —pose, etc. Of syn to sympa- 
thy, syllogysm, etc. 
*5 



102 



AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 



The following lists contain the most common Pre- 
fixes in use, they are chiefly prepositions of Greek, 
Latin, or Saxon origin. The radicals to which they 
are prefixed are not always used as distinct words in 
our language. 

The meaning of primitives may generally be deter- 
mined by the application of different prefixes ; as, From 
comparing compel, dispel, e^pel, impel, _propel, etc., it 
may readily be observed that pel means to drive or 
move, etc. 

GREEK PREFIXES. 



PREFIX. 


SIGNIFICATION. 


EXAMPLE. 


A or an, 


without. 


Anonymous (name). 


Amphi, 


both, double. 


Amphibious (living). 


Ana, 


through, up. 


Anatomy (cut). 


Anti, 


against. 


^w^christian. 


Apo or Aph. 


from. 


Apogee (earth). 


Dia, 


through. 


Diameter (measure.) 


Epi, 


upon. 


.Epitaph (tomb). 


Hpper, 


over, above. 


Hypercritical. 


Hopo, 


under. 


Hypocvit. 


Meta or Meth 


, change, beyond. 


Metamorphose (from). 


Para, 


from, against. 


Paradox (opinion) 


Peri, 


around. 


Perimeter (measure). 


Syn* 


with. 


Sympathy (feeling). 




PREFIXES OF LATIN ORIGIN. 


PREFIX. 


SIGNIFICATIONS. 


EXAMPLES. 


A ab, abs, 


from, away. 


divert, a&stract. 


Ad,* 


to, at, towards. 


^.ojoin, approach (move). 


Those prefixes marked thus 


* have various forms. 





PREFIXES. 103 


PREFIX. 


SIGNIFICATIONS. 


EXAMPLES. 


Ante, 


before. 


Antecedent (going), [ing, 


Bene, 


good, well. 


Benevolent, beneficent (do- 


Bis or bi, 


twice, two. 


Pisect (cut), biped (feet) . 


Circum, 


about, around. 


Circumnavigate (sail). 


Con,* 


together, with. 


GWlapse, confirm. 


Contra, 


against. 


Contradict (speak). 


De, 


from, down. 


Dethrone, detract (draw). 


Dis* 


apart, asunder. 


Distract, divert (turn). 


E (ex) * 


out of, from. 


inject (cast), eccpel (drive). 


Extra, 


beyond. 


Extraordinary. 


In* 


into, in nott 


Inform, inactive. 


Inter, 


between. 


Interpose (place). 


Intro, 


in, within. 


Introduce (lead). 


Non, 


not. 


JVbnconformist, 


Ob,* 


against. 


Obstruct (build). 


Per, 


by, through. 


Perfect (made). 


Post, 


after. 


Postpone (place) 


Pre, 


before. 


Precede (go). 


Pro, 


for, forth, forward* 


?. Pronoun, progress (go). 


Pater, 


beyond, past. 


Paternal. 


Ke, 


again, back. 


Pecall. 


Eetro, 


backwards, 


Pe^rograde (move). 


Se, 


apart, separation. 


Recede (go). 


Sine, 


without. 


Sinecure (cure). 


Sub* 


under. 


Subscribe (write). 


Super, 


beyond, over. 


/Superscribe (write). 


Trans, 


change, over. 


Transplant. 


Uni, 


one. 


Uniform. 



t Before a verb in signifies into, in, and sometimes against; before an 
adjective it has a negative meaning. 



104 



AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 



PREFIXES OF SAXON ORIGIN AND OTHERS. 



PREFIX. 


SIGNIFICATION. 


EXAMPLE. 


A, 


at, in, on. 


Asleep, Aboard, 


Be, 


for, near, on. 


inside, bestir. 


For, 


against, from. 


.Forbid, forsake. 


Fore, 


before. 


Foresee, foretell. 


Mis, 


error, wrong. 


Mistake, Misspell, 


Over, 


above, beyond, 


Overdo, overload. 


Out, 


beyond, move. 


Outrun, Owtgrow. 


Un, 


negation, not. 


Unwise, unkind, 


Under, 


beneath, inferior. 


Understand, undergo. 


Tip, 


above, subversion. 


Uplift, upset. 


With, 


against, from. 


TT^Astand, withdraw. 



Many of the radicals to which the foregoing pre- 
fixes are added are not distinct words in our usage. 
The following model for analizing derivative words, 
will enable to understand the power and meaning of 
words of this class : 

MODEL FOR ANALYZING. 

Insufficient is a derivative word, derived from in and suf- 
ficient. 

In is a prefix, signifying not. 

Insufficient . . is a radical, signifying competent, Hence 
Insufficient, not enough, not competent, etc. 

To some radicals two prefixes are added, each having 
its peculiar force at the same time ; as, Be-ad-mit, re- 
construct. An explanation of each prefix should be 
given. 

In the study of our language it is good exercise to 
take the dictionary and from any radical give the de- 
rivatives and explain them. 



AFFIXES. 105 

MODEL. 

Kadical FORM, Manner, method, shape, etc. 

Conform, to form together or with, i. e., to assim- 
ilate ; to comply. 

Deform, to form from [an exact shape], i. e., to dis- 
figure. 

Inform, to form in [the mind], i. e., to teach ; to tell. 

Perform, to form through, i. e. , to execute ; to finish. 

iteform, to form again, i. e., to amend; to review. 

Transform, to form over, i. e., to change the form ; 
to shape, etc. 



AFFIXES OR SUFFIXES. 

An affix, in forming derivative words, is a syllable 
or syllables placed after a radical ; as, Faith/wZ, knave- 
ish, useless — ful, ish, and less are affixes. 

In the application and use of Affixes, the final letter 
or letters of the radical are frequently changed, as may 
be understood from the following examples : 

1. Changing the final letters. — A Radical word ending 
with y, preceded by a consonant, generally changes the final 
y into i : otherwise it usually remains unchanged ; as, Duty-es, 
duties; happy-es/, happiest, etc. If the affix commences with 
i the final y of the radical remains unchanged ; as, Marry-m# 
to marrying ; pray-m^r to praying, etc. 

2. Dropping the final letter. — In joining an affix be- 
ginning with a vowel, the final vowel of the radical is dropped 
in most all words ending with e silent, as Love-ing to loving. 
Also the same in some words ending with y and i ; as, Felicity, 
felicitate ; deiism, deism, etc. 



106 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

3. The final letters le when followed by ly are dropped; as, 
!N"oble-fo/, nobly ; so also t or te before ce or cy ; as, Y agrant-cy, 
vagrancy; prelate-cy, prelacy, etc. 

Exceptions. — The final e is retained when preceded by c or 
g; as, Peaee-aoZe, peaceable; change-a&£e, changeable, etc. 

4. Doubling the final letter. — Joining affixes begin- 
ning with a vowel to a monosyllable, or any word accented 
on the last syllable, the final of such radicals being a single 
consonant, preceded by a single vowel, is doubled ; as, Dig-ina, 
digging ; defer-ing, deferring. The final letter remains single 
in such words as defending, differing, repairing, etc. 

5. Many words ending with I, such as cancel, cavil, chisel, 
counsel, duel, equal, grovel, libel, model, pencil, revel, trammel, 
travel, tunnel, etc., though not accented on the last syllable, 
double the I on receiving the affix beginning with a vowel. 

6. So also observe doubling the final letters of such radicals 
as bias, kidnap, worship, etc. — bias-sing, kidnap-ping, wor- 
ship-ping, etc. 



principle affixes. 

The following lists contain the principle affixes 
classed according to their signification : 

1. Affixes signifying the Person Who. — An, ant, ar, 
ard, ary, ee, eer, ent, ess, ian, ine, ist, ite, ive, ix, ner, or, ress, 
ster, yer, zen, etc. 

Examples — American, one who lives in America ; Adversary, 
one who opposes; Beggar, one who begs; Actress, & female who 
acts; and so of the following: Actor, arithmetician, citizen, 
dotard, economist, favorite, heroine, instructress, laborer, law- 
yer, mortgagee, partner, poetess, president, teamster, testa- 
trix, etc. 

2. Affixes signifying the Act, Quality, or State, of 
the Thing "Which. — Acy, ade, age, al, ance, ancy, dom, ense, 



AFFIXES. 101 

ency, ety, hood, ice, ion, ism, ment, mong, ness, ric, ry, ship, 
th, ty, ude, (tude,) ure, etc. 

Examples — Coinaye, the act of coining, inventing; Meek- 
ness, the quality of being meek, mild; Neighbor hood, a state or 
place near, intimate; Truth, the thing which is correct, real, 
exact; and so of, Allimony, bishopric, bondage, cannonade, 
Christendom, commandment, despotism, emergency, erection, ex- 
pectancy, goodness, justice, novelty, pressure, privacy, quietude, 
repentance, rivalry, scholarship, variety, etc. 

3. Affixes signifying Abounding in ok Belonging 
to the Property. — Ac, al, an, (ian t can,) ar, ary, ate, ey, ful, 
ic, {tic or atic,) ile, ine, ish, ory, ose, ous, . (ious, eous, nous,) 
y, etc. 

Examples — Affectionate, abounding in love or affection ; 
Washingtonian, belonging to Washington ; also of, Adamant- 
ine, autumnal, consular, discretionary, elegiac, emblematic, 
hope/wZ, juvenile, lunatic, sunny, transitory, verbose, wondrot^s, 
woody, etc. 

4. Affixes signifying To Cause To Make. — Ate, (iate 
nate), en, fy, ize, ise, etc. 

Examples — Alienage, to make an alien; and so of Civilize, 
criticise, justi/y, soften, etc. 

5. Affixes signifying Diminution. — Cle, cule, kin, let, 
ling, ock, etc. 

Examples — CorpuscZe, a little body or particle; and so of 
AnimalcwZe, duck/in#, eaglet, hillock, lambkin, etc. 

6. A Eew Miscellaneous Affixes. — Able, (ible,) capa- 
ble of; as, Credit. Ics, science of, mathematics. Ish, some- 
what ; as, BluisA. Ive, tending to; as, Delusive. Less, without ; 
as, Sleepless. Like, resembling ; as, WarZi^e. Ly, in man- 
ner, as, Wisely. Ward, fowaras ; as, Westward, etc. 

The following terminations are properly grammatical 
inflections denoting the class, property, or power of a 
noun, verb, adjective, or adverb : 



108 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 



EXAMPLES. 



Es or s, * signifies more than one {plural) ; as, 

Churches, days. 
Ed or d preterate or past time ; as, Joined, loved. 
Er, est, more and most ; as, Milder, mildest 
Ing, continuing to do ; as, Pleasm^, seeing, etc. 

In the foregoing list of various affixes, the general 
significations are given. The particular variations of 
their meaning to suit given cases will readily suggest 
themselves. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. (Quietude.) 

Quietude is a derivative word — derived from quiet and tide. 
Quiet . . is the radical — signifying rest. 
Ude ... is the affix, and signifies state of. 
Hence Quietude — state of rest. 

By this analysis with the foregoing models for prefixes 
and affixes, we can analyze all words having either, or 
both a prefix and an affix. All compounds words may 
be analyzed according to the following : 

model. — (Sea-breeze.) 

Sea-breeze is a compound word, formed from 
Sea, . . . which means the ocean, and 
Breeze, . which means a gentle wind. 

Hence sea-breeze — a gentle wind from the ocean. 

* Where es or s is added to the tense of verbs it denotes the 
singular number. 



PART III. 



ANALYTICAL SYNTAX. 

Syntax embraces that part of Grammar which treats 
of the proper arrangement of words, and formation of 
sentences in general. 

A Sentence is an assemblage of words to express 
thought ; and may contain one or more propositions. 

A Proposition is the combination of an agent and a 
predicate ; as, Man is mortal. 

The component parts of a sentence are its elements, 
which may be either words, phrases, or clauses. 

Those elements which are essential to the formation 
of a sentence, are called principal elements, those 
which are not essential, are called subordinate ele- 
ments. 

A simple sentence contains but one proposition ; as, 
Time passes ; The winds blow. 

In a complex sentence there may be two or more dis- 
similar propositions ; as, When the winds blow, the 
trees bend. 

A compound sentence contains two or more similar 
propositions ; as, " The winds blow and the trees 
bend." 
6 



110 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

In the sentence, " When the wind blows, the trees 
bend," the first proposition wholly depends on the latter, 
so they are dissimilar. In the following example, 
" The winds blow and the trees bend," the two propo- 
sitions are independent of each other, hence they are 
similar. 



OBJECTS, OR THINGS, AND THEIR ATTRIBUTES. 

Nouns or all persons, animals, places, and things, 
whether material or immaterial, are called Objects — let 
it be remembered that the names of all objects which 
we can see, feel, taste, hear, or think of, are nouns. 

In the following sentences the nouns or objects may 
be pointed out : 

The soil of Ohio produces wheat, rye, barley, oats, 
corn, potatoes, flax, hay, and pasture. The State is 
well adapted to husbandry, producing horses, cattle, 
sheep, hogs, and poultry — not surpassed by any 
country. 



EXERCISES. 

Filial Affection. — I sought my mother's grave; 
the weeds were already matted over it, and the tomb- 
stone was half hid among nettles. I cleared them 
away, and they stung my hands ; but I was heedless of 
the pain, for my heart ached too severely. I sat down 
on the grave, and read over and over again the epitaph 
on the stone. 



SYNTAX — PROPERTIES OF OBJECTS. Ill 

It was simple — but it was true. I had written it 
myself. I had tried to write a poetical epitaph, but in 
vain ; my feelings refused to utter themselves in rhyme. 
My heart had gradually been filled during my lonely 
wanderings ; it was now charged to the brim, and over- 
flowed. I sank upon the grave, and buried my face in 
the tall grass, and wept like a child. Yes, I wept in 
manhood upon the grave, as I had in infancy upon the 
bosom of my mother. Alas ! how little do we appre- 
ciate a mother's tenderness while living ! how heedless 
are we in youth of all her anxieties and kindness ! But 
when she is dead and gone ; when the cares and cold- 
ness of the world come withering to our hearts ; when 
we find how hard it is to meet with true sympathy ; 
how few love us for ourselves ; how few will befriend 
us in our misfortunes ; then it is that we think of the 
mother we have lost. It is true I had always loved my 
mother, even in my most heedless days ; but I felt how 
inconsiderate and ineffectual had been my love. My 
heart melted as I retraced the days of infancy, when I 
was led by a mother's hand, and rocked to sleep in a 
mother's arms, and was without care or sorrow. " O 
my mother ! " exclaimed I, burying my face again in 
the grass of the grave, " O that I were once more by 
your side ; sleeping, never to wake again on the cares 
and troubles of this world ! " Washington Irving. 



PROPERTIES OF OBJECTS. 

There are certain properties belonging to all objects 
termed attributes, as when we say, The rose is beauti- 
ful, fragrant, red, sweet, white, yellow, etc. — Beauti- 
ful, fragrant, red, etc., are attributes of the rose. 



112 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Attributes are of three kinds : — 

1. — Those denoting the class of objects ; as, 
Beast, fowl, tree, etc. The class to which the fol- 
owing objects belong may be given : — 

America, apple, bachelor, Bible, cat, coffee, child, 
Columbus, corn, Dictionary, horses, James, Legisla- 
tor, Ohio, oak, silver, water, Washington, violin, etc. 
Example, America — a place, a country; Apple — a 

SUBSTANCE, a FRUIT, etc. 

2. — Those denoting the qualities of objects ; as, 
Good, sweet, young, etc. The qualities to which 
the following objects belong may be given : — 

Cherry, cloud, forest, fishes, garden, gold, horse, 
man, mountain, river, rose, sin, shy, truth, virtue, 
etc. Example, Cherry~Goov, green, red ripe, sour, 
sweet, etc. 

3. — Those denoting the Action of objects; as, 
Crawl, fly, speak, etc. The Actions to which the fol- 
lowing objects belong may be given : — Bird, beast, 
child, earth, house, insect, men, publisher, serpents, 
stars, trees, wind, etc. Example, Bird — Chirp, eat, 
fly, hatch, hop, run, sit, sing, sleep, etc. 



exercises. 

Our Country's Responsibilities to the World. — 
Let it be remembered, that it has ever been the pride 
and boast of America that the rights for which she con- 
tended were the rights of human nature. By the 
blessing of the Author of these rights on the means 
exerted for their defence, they have prevailed over all 



SYNTAX — PROPERTIES OP OBJECTS. 113 

opposition. * * * No instance has heretofore occurred, 
nor can any instance be expected hereafter to occur, in 
which the unadulterated forms of republican govern- 
ment can pretend to so fair an opportunity of justifying 
themselves by their fruits. In this view, the citizens of 
the United States are responsible for the greatest trust 
ever confided to a political society. If justice, good 
faith, honor, gratitude, and all the other qualities which 
ennoble the character of a nation, and fulfill the ends 
of government, be the fruits of our establishments, the 
cause of Liberty will acquire a dignity and lustre 
which it has never yet enjoyed ; and an example will be 
set which cannot but have the most favorable influence 
on the rights of mankind. If, on the other side, our 
governments should be unfortunately blotted with the 
reverse of these cardinal and essential virtues, the great 
cause which we have engaged to vindicate will be dis- 
honored and betrayed ; the last and fairest experiment 
in favor of the rights of human nature will be turned 
against them ; and their patrons and friends exposed to 
be insulted and silenced by the votaries of tyranny and 
usurpation. James Madison. 



UNITING ATTRIBUTES TO OBJECTS. 

An attribute may be joined to an object in two 
ways : — 1. It may be assumed of it ; as, Clear light, 
hilly country, rough sea, strong horses, venomous rep- 
tiles, etc. 

2. It may he predicated of it ; as, The light is clear ; 
The country is hilly ; The sea is rough ; horses are 
strong ; Reptiles are venomous , etc, 



114 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISING ON ASSUMING AND PREDICATING. 

Assume and Predicate the following properties of Gold: — 
Heavy, porous, precious, rough, yellow; Of a Horse — Active, 
brave, bay, dead, frantic, gray, heavy, lame, nimble, noble, old, 
sick, sorrel, spirited, white, wild, young, etc.; Of Water — Bitter, 
clear, cold, fresh, pure, salt, turbid, warm, etc. 

Model. — 1. Porous gold, yellow gold, etc. 2. Gold is 
porous, gold is yellow, etc. 

"When an attribute is assumed of its object it modifies or 
limits it, because it restricts a general to a particular class; as, 
for example — "horses" means all the horses in the world, but 
"black horses" applies to those of that denomination or 
color, excluding gray, sorrel, white and all other colored 
horses. 



PROPOSITIONS. 

When an attribute is predicated of an object the two 
united form a Proposition or simple sentence; as, 
Grass grows; Snow is white; The Moon is a satel- 
lite, etc. 

A Proposition is the combination of an Agent and 
Predicate, and is either a simple sentence, or part of 
a complex or compound sentence. 

The Agent of a Proposition is that of which some- 
thing is affirmed ; as, Boys play ; Horses run. 

The Predicate of a Proposition is that which is 
affirmed of the agent ; as, Horses run ; The winds 
are blowing, etc. 



SYNTAX — PROPOSITIONS. 115 

Obs. — The Predicate may be either affirmed or denied of the 
Agent ; but the denial of any thing is only affirming a nega- 
tive; as, The fruit is not ripe — that is to say, the fruit is 
green, etc. 

The Agent of a sentence is commonly a noun or pro- 
noun; as, James writes; He teaches, etc. 

Obs. — Any letter, syllable, word, phrase, or proposition may 
be the agent, when used as a noun; as, A is a vowel; 7s is a 
verb; To study is profitable ; "That the earth revolves on its 
axis is clearly proved." etc. 

The predicate consists of two parts — the verb or 
copula and the attribute ; as, Snow is white. Is is 
the copula, and white the attribute, etc. 

The Copula of the predicate is some modification 
(am, is, are, was, etc.) of the verbe be. Its office is 
to assert an attribute of the thing to which it belongs. 
It is often so that the attribute and copula are united 
in one word ; as, Birds sing ; Winds blow ; The Sun 
shines, etc. 

When the predicate contains the copula and the 
attribute in one word, it may always be resolved into 
two parts as follows ; Winds blow — Winds are blow- 
ing ; The sun shines — is shining, etc. 

When the two parts of a predicate are united into 
One word, that word is always a Verb ; as, James 
writes, (is writing,) etc. 

The essential parts of a simple Sentence are the 

AGENT and PREDICATE. 



116 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Sentences containing only the two essential parts 
may be analyzed according to the following : 

MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 

Children learn. 

It is a Propsition, because it contains an agent and & predi- 
cate. 

Children is the Agent, because learn, the action affirmed, 
is performed by children, a common noun, 
masculine and feminine gender, third person, 
plural number, and nominative case to lrarn, 
according to Eule 1. 

Learn . . is the Predicate, describing an action; It is 
a regular verb, intransitive, in the indicative 
mode, present tense, third person, plural number, 
agreeing with the agent children, according to 
Eule 2. (May be resolved into are learning, etc.) 

Honey is sweet. 

It is a Proposition, because it contains an agent and predi- 
cate. 

Honey . is an agent, because the quality, is sweet, affirmed, 
belongs to honey, a common noun, neuter gender, 
third person, singular number, and nominativec 
case ; — Eule 1. 

Is sweet is the Predicate, describing a quality ; Is is an ir- 
regular verb, intransitive, indicative mode, present 
tense, third person, singular number, agreeing 
with the agent honey, according to Eule 2. 
Sweet, the copula, is a describing adjective, joined 
with is, but belongs to honey, according to 
Eule 3. 



SYNTAX — MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. lit 

Gold is a metal. 

It is a Proposition, because it contains an agent and predi- 
cate. 

Gold ... is the Agent, belonging to a class described. It 
is a noun common, neuter gender, third person, 
singular number, and nominative to is, accord- 
ing to Eule 1. 

Is A metal is the Predicate, describing a class ; Is, is an ir- 
regular verb, intransitive, indicative mode, pres- 
ent tense, third person, singular number, agree- 
ing with Gold, according to Kule 2. 
A is a limiting adjective, and belongs to metal, 
according to Rule 3. 

Metal, is a noun common, neuter gender, third 
person, singular number, and nominative case* 
after Is, according to Eule 11. 

According to the foregoing models the following 
propositions may be analyzed : — 

Americans conquered. Buchanan is President. 
Eagles soar. Exercise strengthens. Grammar is in- 
teresting. Henry was eloquent. Historians write. 
Jefferson presided. Kings reign. He was cruel. 
Night comes. The sun will rise. Washington was 
victorious. Wind blows. Virtue ennobles. 



EXERCISES. 

Spring. — In all climates Spring is beautiful. The 
birds begin to sing ; they utter a few rapturous notes, 

*A ISToun or Pronoun with a copula forming a pred- 
icate will always be in the nominative case. 



118 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

and then wait for an answer in the silent woods. 
Those green-coated musicians, the frogs, make holiday 
in the neighboring marshes. They, too, belong to the 
orchestra of Nature ; whose vast theatre is again 
opened, though the doors have been so long bolted with 
icicles, and the scenery hung with snow and frost like 
cobwebs. This is the prelude which announces the 
opening of the scene. Already the grass shoots forth. 
The waters leap with thrilling pulse through the veins 
of the earth ; the sap through the veins of the plants 
and trees ; and the blood through the veins of 
man. What a thrill of delight in Spring-time I 
What a joy in being and moving ! Men are at 
work in gardens ; and in the air there is an odor of the 
fresh earth. The leaf-buds begin to swell and blush. 
The white blossoms of the cherry hang upon the boughs 
like snow-flakes ; and ere long our next-door neighbors 
will be completely hidden from us by the dense green 
foliage. The May-flowers open their soft blue eyes. 
Children are let loose in the fields and gardens. They 
hold buttercups under each other's chins, to see if they 
love butter. And the little girls adorn themselves with 
chains and curls of dandelions ; pull out the yellow 
leaves, to see if the schoolboy loves them, and blow the 
down from the leafless stalk, to find out if their moth- 
ers wanted them at home. Henry W. Longfellow. 



MODIFICATIONS OP THE PREDICATE. 

The Predicate may be modified by inflection rep- 
resenting what is affirmed ; and may, like the agent, 
also indicate by its form, or some change of its form, 
some accidental properties, either belonging to the 



SYNTAX — MODIFICATIONS OF THE PREDICATE. 119 

copula or to the attribute, or to both. It may be ob- 
served when the two parts of the predicate are distinct, 
the attribute may be a noun or pronoun having the 
same properties as the agent, viz. gender, person, 
number, and case — or may be an adjective having 
comparison only — or may be a participle taken with 
the copula as one word. The copula or any verb may 
indicate person, number, mode, and tense. When the 
attribute is a noun or pronoun it may be called a nom- 
inal predicate and formed as follows : — 

Note I. A noun or pronoun with a copula form- 
ing a predicate must be in the nominative case ; as, 
Gold is a metal ; I am he; She is called a coquette. 

Obs. 1. — The Nominal Predicate denotes always the same 
person or thing as the Agent, and must agree with it in case. 
When denoting a person only, it usually agrees with the 
agent in gender, number, and case. 

Obs. 2. — By an idiom of our language, the neuter pronoun 
It, as agent, may represent a noun or pronoun as predicate of 
any person or gender ; as, It is /; It is Samuel ; It is she. 

MODELS FOR PARSING A NOMINAL PREDICATE. 

Gold is a Metal* 

Metal is a noun, common, neuter gender, third person, sin- 
gular number, and nominative case — with Is 
forms the predicate of the proposition, Gold is a 
metal, according to Note I. A noun or pronoun 
with a copula forming a predicate must be in the 
nominative case. 

* After resolving a sentence into its analytical division, its words should 
e parsed and classified etymologically: as a review of Part II. 



120 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

She is called a coquette. 

Coquette is a noun, common, feminine gender, third person, 
singular number, and nominative case — with 
is called forms the predicate of the proposition 
She is called a coquette, according to Note I. 

Obs. — This last proposition has two attributes, called and coquette, 
both of which with IS constitute the predicate. 

The following propositions may be analyzed accord- 
ing to the foregoing models : — 

Air is a fluid. Henry was an orator. He is deemed 
a workman. Horses are animals. It is I. Jackson 
was elected president. She is a poetess. They have 
become teachers. We will be scholars. You will 
have been deceived. 

EXERCISES. 

From the Society at Watering Places. — The 
ball was breaking up. A few desperate dancers still 
floated upon the floor. The chairs were empty. The 
women were shawling, and the men stood attendant 
with bouquets. I went to a window and looked out. 
The moon was rising — a wan, waning moon. The 
broad fields lay dark beneath, and as the music ceased, 
I heard the sullen roar of the sea. If my heart ached 
with an indefinite longing — if it felt that the airy epi- 
curism of the Pacha was but a sad cynicism, masquer- 
ading in smiles — if I dreaded to ask whether the wisest 
were not the saddest — if the rising moon, and the 
plunging sea, and the silence of midnight, were mourn- 
ful — if I envied Daisy Clover her sweet sleep and vig- 
orous waking — why, no one need ever know it, nor 
suspect that the brilliant Minerva Tattle is a failure. 
George William Curtiss. 



SYNTAX. 121 

AN ADJECTIVE PREDICATE. 

When an adjective is the attribute of the predicate 
it may be varied to indicate comparison, and may be 
called an adjective-predicate, and formed as follows : — 

Note II. An adjective with a copula forming a 
predicate, belongs to the Agent ; as, Jane is benevo- 
lent ; John will be handsome ; Washington was wise. 

MODEL eor adjective-predicates. 

Jane is benevolent. 

Benevolent is an adjective of the positive degree, (may 
be compared,) and with Is forms the^predi- 
cate of the proposition Jane is benevolent ; it 
belongs to Jane, according to Note II. An 
adjective with a copula forming a predicate 
belongs to the agent, etc. 

The following proposition may be analyzed accord- 
ing to the foregoing model : — 

America is independent. Edward was sick. Michael 
is corpulent. Peaches are delicious. Roses are fra- 
grant. The child is pretty. The country will be 
beautiful. The man was old. The statesman is faith- 
ful. The soil is fertile. The water is clear. The wind 
will be calm. 

Obs. — Adjectives may belong to a substantive phrase or 
clause; as, To steal is base) That the sun will be eclipsed is 
evident. 

EXERCISES. 

Character of Hamilton. — He was born to be 



122 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

great. Whoever was second, Hamilton must be first. 
To his stupendous and versatile mind no investigation 
was difficult — no subject presented which he did not 
illuminate. Superiority, in some particular, belongs to 
thousands. Preeminence, in whatever he chose to un- 
dertake, was the prerogative of Hamilton. No fixed 
criterion could be applied to his talents. Often has 
their display been supposed to have reached the limit 
of human effort ; and the judgment stood firm till set 
aside by himself. When a cause of new magnitude re- 
quired new exertion, he rose, he towered, he soared ; 
surpassing himself as he surpassed others. Then was 
nature tributary to his eloquence ! Then was felt his 
despotism over the heart ! Touching, at his pleasure, 
every string of pity or terror, of indignation or grief, 
he melted, he soothed, he roused, he agitated ; altern- 
ately gentle as the dews, and awful as the thunder. 
Yet, great as he was in the eyes of the world, he was 
greater in the eyes of those with whom he was most 
conversant. The greatness of most men, like objects 
seen through a mist, diminishes with the distance ; but 
Hamilton, like a tower seen afar off under a clear sky, 
rose in grandeur and sublimity with every step of 
approach. Familiarity with him was the parent of 
veneration. Over these matchless talents, probity threw 
her brightest lustre. Frankness, suavity, tenderness, 
benevolence, breathed through their exercise. And to 
his family ! — but he is gone — that noble heart beats no 
more ; that eye of fire is dimmed ; and sealed are 
those oracular lips. Americans, the serenest beam of 
your glory is extinguished in the tomb. 

John M. Mason 

VERBAL ATTRIBUTES. 

In a Predicate when a verb is the attribute it may 
be formed and varied to agree with its agent in num- 



SYNTAX— CLASSES OF SENTENCES. 123 

ber and person, whether distinct from or united to the 
copula ; as, Silas is studying ; Thou art sleeping ; 
Silas studies ; Thou sleepest, etc. 



CLASSES OF SENTENCES. 

Sentences are of three kinds, viz : Declaratory, 
Interrogatory, and Imperative. 

A Declarative sentence states a fact, or the possi- 
bility of a fact ; as, God is love ; 2" saw Washington ; 
You can see Washington. 

It may be observed that the verb of a declarative 
sentence is either in the indicative or potential mode. 

An Interrogative sentence interrogates or asks a 
question ; as, Whom did you see ? Lovest thou me ? 
Can we go ? 

An Imperative sentence is used to express a com- 
mand, an entreaty, an exortation, or a prayer; as, 
Lazarus, come forth; Let us go; Bemember thy 
Creator; Father, forgive them. 

Obs. — Either a Declarative, Interrogative, or Imperative 
sentence so uttered as to express passion or emotion, partakes 
of an Exclamatory character; as, I fear God! Who is the Lord! 
Be careful! 0, hear me to some solitary cell! 

THE AGENT QUALIFIED. 

The Agent of a sentence may be qualified by the 
addition of a single word, a phrase, or clause. 



124 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

The Agent taken with a word or words which qual- 
ify it, is called a complex or logical agent ; when 
taken apart from such word or words, it is the Gram- 
matical agent. 

In the sentence, A great Statesman was elected, A 
great Statesman is the complex or logical agent, and 
Statesman is the grammatical agent. 

An Agent may be restricted in its application in four 
ways : — 

1. Without affecting any of its properties ; as, Two 
Statesmen; These Statesmen f etc. 

2. By designating some property ; as, Wise States- 
men ; Good children ; Unfaithful husband, etc. 

3. By Identifying it ; as, Buchanan the President ; 
Cass the Secretary ; Douglas the Statesman etc. 

4. By Representing it as an object possessed ; as, 
Washington's sword; The Senate's Chair; Our 
Statesmen, etc. 

The first and second restrictions are made by ad- 
jective words. The third and fourth by nouns and 
pronouns. 

An Agent may be qualified by a word or group 
of ivords in any relation answering the questions : — 
How many? K Of what? Whose? What? What kind? 
etc. may be called an adjective element, as, Eight 
boys; Five thousand men; Men of benevolence; 
The small man ; An exceedingly punctilious teacher ; 
Men who are industrious ; This pleasing story, etc. 



SYNTAX. 125 



ADJECTIVE WORDS. 

All Adjective words used as modifiers may be ar- 
ranged according to the following : 

Note III. An Adjective (or Participle used as 
an Attribute) belongs to the noun or pronoun which 
it qualifies ; as, Industrious men labor ; This truth is 
clear ; Limiting Adjectives can be distinguished. 

model. — Industrious men labor. 

Industrious men is the complex or logical agent. 

Industrious .... is a describing Adjective, of the positive de- 
gree and belonging to men, according to 
' Eule 3. 

Men is the Grammatical agent — it is a noun, 

common, etc. 

Labor is the predicate, it is a regular verb, intrans- 
itive, ete. 

AN ADDITIONAL MODEL. 

Limiting Adjectives can be distinguished. 

Limiting Adjectives is the logical agent. 

Limiting is a present participle used as a 

describing adjective, it belongs to 
Adjectives, according to Note III. 
An adjective or participle used 
as an attribute, belongs to the noun 
or pronoun which it qualifies. 

Can be distinguished . . is the predicate, it is regular, transi- 
tive verb, etc. 
6* 



126 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Obs. — 1. Adjectives implying number should agree with 
£he nouns to which they belong in number; as, All men; 
Several men, etc. 

2. When two numerals precede a noun, one singular and the 
other plural, the plural should be placed next to the noun ; as, 
The first two verses (not the two first verses) ; The last twenty 
days, (not the twenty last days,) etc. 

The following sentences may be analyzed according to 
the foregoing models : 

Any price will be paid. Do all birds sing ? Each 
soldier was paid. Early rising is recommended. Good 
books are useful. Just men are honorable. Many fish 
were caught. New discourses will be made. Old 
bachelors are disagreeable. The singing bird seems 
happy. That horse is lame. These books are new. 
The night is cloudy. The rising sun is delightful. 



EXERCISES. 

Sabbath in New England. — The Sabbath morn- 
ing is as peaceful as the first hallowed day. Not a 
human sound is heard without the dwellings, and, but 
for the lowing of the herds, the crowing of the cocks, 
and the gossiping of the birds, animal life would seem 
to be extinct, till, at the bidding of the church-going 
bell, the old and young issue from their habitations, 
and, with solemn demeanor, bend their measured steps 
to the meeting-house ; the families of the minister, the 
squire, the doctor, the merchant, the modest gentry of 
the village, and the mechanic and laborer, all arrayed 
in their best, all meeting on even ground, and all with 



SYNTAX — ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 121 

that consciousness of independence and equality which 
breaks down the pride of the rich, and rescues the poor 
from servility, envy, and discontent. If a morning sal- 
utation is reciprocated, it is in a suppressed voice ; and 
if, perchance, nature, in some reckless urchin, burst forth 
in laughter, " My dear, you forget it's Sunday," is the 
ever ready reproof. 

Though every face wears a solemn aspect, yet we 
once chanced to see even a deacon's muscles relax by 
the wit of a neighbor, and heard him alledge, in a half- 
deprecating, half-laughing voice, " The squire is so 
droll, that a body must laugh, though it be Sabbath- 
day." Catharine Maria Sedgwick. 

True and False Greatness. — Having closed his 
administration, fellow-citizens, President Jefferson was 
followed by the applause, the gratitude, and blessings 
of his country, into that retirement which no man was 
ever better fitted to grace and enjoy. And from this 
retirement, together with his precursor, the venerable 
patriarch of Quincy, he could enjoy that supreme of all 
earthly happiness, the retrospect of a life well and 
greatly spent, in the service of his country and mankind. 
The successful warrior, who has desolated whole em- 
pires for his own aggrandizement, the successful usurper 
of his country's rights and liberties, .may have their 
hours of swelling pride, in which they may look back 
with a barbarous joy upon the triumph of their talents, 
and feast upon the adulation of the sycophants that sur- 
round them ; but, night and silence come ; and con- 
science takes her turn. The bloody field rises upon the 
startled imagination. The shades of the slaughtered 
innocents stalk, in terrific procession, before the couch. 
The agonizing cries of countless widows and orphans 
invade the ear. The bloody dagger of the assassin 
plays, in airy terror, before the vision. Violated lib- 
erty lifts her avenging lance ; and a down-trodden na- 



128 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

tion rises before them in all the majesty of its wrath. 
What are the hours of a splendid wretch like this, com- 
pared with those that shed their poppies and their 
roses upon the pillows of our peaceful and virtuous 
patriots ! Every night bringing to them the balm and 
health of repose, and every morning offering to them 
" their history in a nation's eyes I" This, this it is to 
be greatly virtuous ; and this the only ambition that 
shall ever touch an American bosom ! — Wm. Wirt. 



THE AGENT OR OBJECT QUALIFIED BY 
ADNOMIAL WORDS. 

An Agent or Object in a sentence may be quali- 
fied by a noun or pronoun denoting possession ; as, 
Harriet's temper raised ; He disputed her word ; 
Let every American's deepest interest be his coun- 
try's greatest good, etc. 

Obs. — 1. When two or more nouns in the possessive case 
are connected, and the object possessed belongs to two or all 
conjointly, the sign of possession ('s) should be fixed to the last 
only; as, Stanton and Allison's office; Kunkle, Taylor, 
and Miller's bank; Brown and Hartley's store. 

2. If different objects having the same name are possessed, 
the sign of possession ('s) should be fixed to each separately ; 
as, Walker's and Webster's Dictionary; Murray's, Brown's 
and Kirkham's Grammar. 

3. Two or more nouns in apposition, used as a complex 



SYNTAX — AGENT OR OBJECT. 129 

noun or otherwise, may have the sign of possession fixed to the 
last only ; as, Chase the Governor's proclamation! ; Buchanan 
the President's advice. 

4. When a noun in the possessive is qualified by a preposi- 
tion and its object, the sign of possession follows the whole sub- 
stantive expression ; as, Hale of New Hampshire's speech ; 
Carey of Ohio's zeal to promote temperance, etc. 



model. — Harriet's temper raised. 

Harriet's temper is a complex or logical agent, etc. 

Temper is the grammatical agent, limited by Har- 
riet's an adnomial word used as an adject- 
ive qualifying temper, a noun, common, etc. 

Raised is the predicate, it is a regular verb, transi- 
tive, etc. 

Harriet . . . . is a noun, proper, feminine gender, third 
person, singular number, and possessive case, 
possessing temper, and governed by it, ac- 
cording to Eule 8. 

The following propositions containing Agents or Ob- 
jects may be analyzed according to the foregoing model : 

Angeline's aunt laughs. Darius's ball was lost. Her 
studies are finished. His parents are living. Its leaves 
are green. Lavenia's son will return. Lewis's father 
died. My expectation is realized. Our neighbors will 
visit us. Your house is pleasant GreenleaPs and 
Ray's Arithmetic. Bullion's, Nutting's and Pinneo's 
Analytical Grammar of the English language. Mur- 
ray the Grammarian's example. My brother William's 
estate will be lost. Stanton of Ohio's speech. Bur- 



130 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

dell the dentist was murdered. Norton the Ethnolo- 
gist's collection of human skulls. Washington the 
father of his country's homestead has been purchased. 

EXERCISES. 

Washington as a Civilian. — Washington's mili- 
tary fame may excite the wonder of mankind ; it is 
chiefly by his civil magistracy that his example will in- 
struct them. Great generals have arisen in all ages of 
the world, and perhaps most in those of despotism and 
darkness. In times of violence and convulsion, they 
rise, by the force of the whirlwind, high enough to ride 
in it and direct the storm. Like meteors, they glare on 
the black clouds with a splendor that, while it dazzles 
and terrifies, makes nothing visible but the darkness. 
The fame of heroes is, indeed, growing vulgar ; they 
multiply in every long war ; they stand in history, and 
thicken in their ranks, almost as undistinguished as 
their own soldiers. 

But such a chief magistrate as Washington appears 
like the pole-star, in a clear sky, to direct the skillful 
statesman. His presidency will form an epoch, and be 
distinguished as the age of Washington. Already it 
assumes its high place in the political region. Like the 
milky way, it whitens along its allotted portion of the 
hemisphere. The latest generations of men will survey, 
through the telescope of history, the space where so 
many virtues blend their rays, and delight to separate 
them into groups and distinct virtues. As the best 
illustration of them, the living monument to which the 
first of patriots would have chosen to consign his fame, 
it is my earnest prayer to heaven that our country may 
subsist, even to that late day, in the plenitude of its 
liberty and happiness, and mingle its mild glory with 
Washington's. Fisher Ames. 



PREDICATE QUALIFIED — OBJECTIVE ELEMENT. 131 

THE PREDICATE OP A SENTENCE 
QUALIFIED. 

A Predicate may be qualified by the addition of a 
single word, a phrase or clause; as, Burr killed 
Hamilton; He incurred much dishonor, military 
and civil. 

When the Predicate is taken in connection with a 
word or words which limit it, it is called a complex or 
logical predicate ; as, Lafayette assisted Washington ; 
Elizabeth recites correctly; The child sings very 
sweetly, etc. 

The Predicate when taken apart from the qualifying 
word or words is called the grammatical predicate : 
as, Havah loves; I see; Ladies sing] The class re- 
cces; The horses run, etc. 



THE OBJECTIVE ELEMENT. 

Any word, or group of words, used to complete the 
meaning of a transitive verb or participle, and answer- 
ing the question what ? or whom ? may be called an 
objective element ; as, Darius desires (what ?) a book, 
a pen, to teach, that he may see his friends, etc. 

observations. 

1. When a verb assumes the passive form, the Agent and 
Object in the active form exchange both position and character ; 
as, Edward assists Tillia — Tillia is assisted by Edward; 



132 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Isaac blessed Jacob — Jacob was blessed by Isaac; He blessed 
him — He was blessed by him ; He loves her — She is loved 
by him, etc. 

In the foregoing examples, the Nouns and Pronouns used as 
Objects in tbe passive voice have the same modifying proper- 
ties (gender, person and number), as when they were used as 
Agents in the active voice — only changing their position and 

CASE. 

2. The following verbs — appoint, call, consider, create, elect, 
esteem, make, name, reckon, regard, render, style, think, and 
some others, take after them a direct object, and also predi- 
cate of it another object; as, Buchanan appointed Medary 
Governor; They called his name John. 

These verbs, unlike other transitive verbs, perform an addi- 
tional office of copula. When they are changed to the passive 
voice, the office of copula is retained ; the first or direct ob- 
ject becomes the agent nominative; and the second, the 
predicate nominative; as, His name was called John by 
them ; Medary was appointed Governor by Buchanan, etc. 

3. In direct address, the following verbs — bring, buy, carry, 
deny, do, draw, find, get, give, leave, lend, make, order, pass, play, 
pour, present, promise, provide, refuse, sell, send, show, sing, 
teach, tell, throw, write, and some others, take after them, be- 
sides a direct object, an indirect one, showing, at the same 
time, to or from whom the action tends ; as, Bring me a book ; 
Buy him a dictionary. 

The Indirect object is generally governed by a preposition 
understood. "When the direct object is placed first, the prepo- 
sition is always expressed; as, Bring a book to me; Buy a 
dictionary for him. 

When any of the foregoing verbs (in Obs. 2 and 3), assume 
the passive form, the direct objeet frequently becomes a sub- 
ject nominative; as, A book was brought to me; A dic- 
tionary was bought for him. 

The Indirect object sometimes becomes a subject nominative, 



MODEL FOR PARSING. 133 

in changing a verb to the passive form ; the agent taking the 
place of the indirect object; as, Burns teaches Grammar to 
the class — The class is taught Grammar by Burns; Presby- 
tery refused his rights to him — - He was refused his rights by 
Presbytery, etc. 

4. An Infinitive, or a substantive clause, instead of a single 
word, may become one of the objects ; as, I told her to go ; He 
informed me that the cars had left, etc. 

In using an Object, it may be arranged and analyzed 
as follows : 

Note IV. A Noun or Pronoun, used as the object 
of a transitive verb, must be in the objective case ; as, 
Douglas opposes Buchanan ; I taught him ; We will 
meet them, etc. 

Model. — Douglas opposes Buchanan. 

Douglas . . . is a simple agent, etc. 

Opposes Buchanan is a complex predicate, etc. 

Opposes .... is the grammatical predicate, and is lim- 
ited by Buchanan, an objective element. 
It is a regular verb, transitive, etc. 

Buchanan . . . is a noun, proper, masculine gender, third 
person, singular, number, and objective 
case, according to Rule 10. 

EXERCISES. 

Abraham reproved Abimelech. Angeline despises 
Quakers. Cain slew Abel. Cold overcomes him. 
Darius pothers me. Does General Scott command the 
army ? Edward deceives Prank. Frank is deceived by 
Edward. Father named him Charles. He was named 
J 



134 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Charles by Father. Leave your hat in the hall. Lend 
his sister my mantle. My mantle was lent to his sister. 
Johnston taught the students Theology. Johnston 
taught Theology to the students. The students were 
taught Theology by Johnston. They advised me to 
leave. William told me that his brother was not at 
home. You must tell him that I am very unwell. You 
may repeat the rule. Will you persuade them ? 



THE ROSE. 

I saw a rose perfect in beauty ; it rested grace- 
fully upon its stalk, and its perfume filled the air. 
Many stopped to gaze upon it, many bowed to taste its 
fragrance, and its owner hung over it with delight. I 
passed it again, and behold it was gone — its stem was 
leafless — its root had withered ; the inclosure which 
surrounded it was broken down. The spoiler had been 
there ; he saw that many admired it ; he knew it was 
dear to him who planted it, and besides it he had no 
other plant to love. Yet he snatched it secretly from 
the hand that cherished it ; he wore it on his bosom till 
it hung its head and faded, and, when he saw that its 
glory was departed, he flung it rudely away. But it 
left a thorn in his bosom, and vainly did he seek to ex- 
tract it ; for now it pierces the spoiler, even in his hour 
of mirth. And when I saw that no man, who had loved 
the beauty of the rose, gathered again its scattered 
leaves, or bound up the stalk which the hands of vio- 
lence had broken, I looked earnestly at the spot where 
it grew, and my soul received instruction. And I said : 
Let her who is full of beauty and admiration, sitting 
like the queen of flowers in majesty among the daugh- 
ters of women, let her watch lest vanity enter her heart, 



ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS — EXERCISES. 135 

beguiling her to rest proudly upon her own strength ; 
let her remember that she standeth upon slippery places, 
" and be not high-minded, but fear." 

Lydia H. Sigoumey. 



ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS.* 

Any word or group of words qualifying the mean- 
ing of a verb, adjective, adverb or participle, and an- 
swering the questions How ? When ? or Where ? may 
be called an Adverbial element) as, Harriet paints 
beautifully; He sings constantly ; She seldom scolds ; 
We will go forward ; Larry is very lazy ; Mary writes 
very well ; I saw him walking slowly homeward, etc. 

Model. — Harriet paints beautifully. 

Harriet .... is the agent, etc. 

Paints Beautifully is a complex predicate, etc. 

Paints is the Grammatical predicate, a regular 

verb, transitive, indicative mode, pres- 
ent tense etc. 

Beautifully . . is an adverb of manner, qualifying 
paints, according to Kule 13. 

exercises. 

Adam answered reluctantly. Charles will return soon. 
Edward will stay over yonder. He will visit us to- 
morrow. Human prudence should be rightly estimated. 

* Any word, phrase, or clause, used to describe the cause, 
manner, place or time of an action, may be used as an adverb. 



136 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

How did the boys bring it ? I am very well. John 
was extremely poor. I heard her singing delightfully. 
I saw it running very fast. My work is not quite done. 
She left hastily. Write carefully. I call to you with 
all my voice. I hereby protest against your proceed- 
ings. The river rose above its banks. We slept un- 
der the bridge. The Governor left when the train 
went out. Thieves go about while honest men sleep. 

FEMALE EDUCATION. 

In our day of progress it is agreeable to observe how 
differently modern writers, and the inspired author of 
the proverbs, describe a fine woman. The former con- 
fine their praises chiefly to personal charms and orna- 
mental accomplishments, while the latter celebrates only 
the virtues of a valuable mistress of a family and a use- 
ful member of society. The one is perfectly acquainted 
with all the fashionable languages of Europe ; the other 
" opens her mouth with wisdom," and is perfectly ac- 
quainted with all the uses of the needle, the distaff, and 
the loom. The business of the one is pleasure ; the 
pleasure of the other is business. The one is admired 
abroad ; the other is honored and beloved at home. 
"Her children arise up and call her blessed, her hus- 
band also, and he praiseth her." There is no fame in 
the world equal to this ; nor is there a note in music 
half so delightful as the respectful language with which 
a grateful son or daughter perpetuates the memory of a 
sensible and affectionate mother. Benjamin Rush. 

Virtue and Happiness. — There is no truth more 
thoroughly established than that there exists, in the 
economy and course of nature, an indissoluble union 
between virtue and happiness, between duty and advan- 



COMPOUND AND COMPLEX ELEMENTS. 13? 

tage, between the genuine maxims of an honest and 
magnanimous policy, and the solid rewards of public 
prosperity and felicity. 

The consideration that human happiness and moral 
duty are inseparably connected will always continue to 
prompt me to promote the progress of the former by 
inculcating the practice of the latter. 

Without virtue, and without integrity, the finest tal- 
ents and the most brilliant accomplishments can never 
gain the respect, and conciliate the esteem, of the truly 
valuable part of mankind. 

I hope I shall always possess firmness and virtue 
enough to maintain what I consider the most enviable 
of all titles, the character of an "honest man." 

The private virtues of economy, prudence, and in- 
dustry are not less amiable, in civil life, than the more 
splendid qualities of valor, perseverance, and enter- 
prise, in public life. George Washington. 



COMPLEX AND COMPOUND ELEMENTS. 

A Proposition or simple sentence may contain five 
distinct elements : The Agent, the Predicate, an Ad- 
jective element, an Objective element, and an Adverbial 
element. 

The Agent and Predicate are the principal ele- 
ment, because no sentence can be formed without them. 
The other three are subordinate elements, because they 
are always directly or indirectly dependent on the other 
two elements. 

Two Elements joined, one of which being subordinate 
to the other , and limiting its meaning, the two united 
form a complex element. 



138 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Obs. — In a simple sentence like boys run, the two princi- 
pal elements are only contained; but in the sentence Small 
boys run, small the adjective or subordinate element belong- 
ing to the Agent (boys) rendering it complex ; and also in the 
sentence, Small boys often run hazards, both the Agent and 
Predicate are complex. And also in the same manner, each 
subordinate element may be made complex. 

Two Elements united, and in no way limiting each 
other, form a compound or co-ordinate element ; as, 
James and Jane went home ; She reads and writes. 

Of the five elements in sentences, either may become 
complex or compound, or both; as, Jane reads and 
sings ; Little Jane reads prose and sings songs ; Little 
Jane reads prose and poetry correctly, and sings 
sacred songs sweetly ; Our little JANE and her 
cousin James READ prose and poetry together cor- 
rectly, and SING many sacred songs very sweetly and 
delightfully, etc. 

In a Complex element, that part which depends on 
another part, and limits it, is subordinate or dissimi- 
lar, because it takes an inferior rank in the sentence : 
it is joined sometimes without, and sometimes with a 
connecting word ; as, He owns a valuable horse ; He 
owns a horse which is valuable, etc. 

In a Compound element the parts connected are co- 
ordinate or similar, because they hold an equal rank 
to each other; as, Joseph and Robert ; Flay and work. 

By Conjunctions or connective the parts of a com- 
pound element are joined to each other ; and the con- 
junctions connecting the parts of a compound element 



MODEL FOR PARSING. 139 

join those of a similar or co-ordinate character; as, 
Clay and Webster were distinguished orators and 
statesmen ; Matilda is arrogant and artful ; She hates 
and loves intensely, etc. 

Obs. — When the parts of a compound element are more 
than two, the conjunction is usually placed "between the last 
two; as, Chase, Giddings and Hale are eminent statesmen- 
Life, Death, Judgment, Reward and Punishment are realities ; 
She reads, writes and ciphers, etc. 

Note V. Similar elements are connected by copu- 
lative conjunctions; as, Columbus and Washington; 
Brave and generous ; Command and obey, etc. 

Note VI. A compound agent is nominative to a 
verb in the plural ; as, Osgood and YnARCEprint books. 

MODELS. 

Calhoun, Clay and Webster were profound statesmen. 

It is a sentence, having a compound* agent. 

Calhoun, Clay and Webster are similar elements, (nouns, 

proper, masculine gender, third 
person, singular number, uni- 
ted by the copulative conjunc- 
tion and, according to Rule 
16,) forming a compound 
Agent, nominative to were, ac- 
cording to Note VI. 

9 When one element of a sentence is compound, it is not 
properly a simple sentence ; neither is it correctly a compound 
sentence ; but may be called a partial compound sentence. 



140 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Were statesmen is the predicate, qualified by 

profound, a describing adjec- 
tive, belonging to statesmen, 
(according to Kule 3,) a nounj 
common, masculine gender, 
third person, plural number, 
and nominative after were, 
according to Kule 11. 

Were is an irregular verb, intransi- 
tive, indicative mode, past 
tense, third person, plural 
number, agreeing with Cal- 
houn, Clay and Webster, 
according to Kule 22. Two or 
more nominatives taken in con- 
nection must have a verb in the 
plural. 

Tillia, you may study Grammar or Logic. 

Tillia, you . . is a complex agent, etc. 

Tillia . . . . is a noun, proper, feminine gender, sec- 
ond person, singular number, and nomina- 
tive, according to Kule 1. (It is used to 
identify the agent.) 

You is a pronoun, of the feminine gender, sec- 
ond person, singular number, agreeing 
with the agent identified, accordng to 
Kule 6 ; it is nominative to may study, 
according to Kule 1. 

May study . . is the predicate, limited by Grammar or 
Logic. May the auxilary, and study a 
regular verb, transitive. May study is in 
the potential mode, present tense, second 
person, singular number, agreeing with 
you, according to Kule 2. 



EXERCISES FOR PARSING. 141 

Grammar or Logic is a compound objective element, (two 
nouns, common, neuter gender, third per- 
son, singular number,) united by on, a dis- 
junctive conjunction, according to Rule 16, 
used to continue the sentence, and showing 
a choice offered between Grammar or 
Logic, in the objective case to may study, 
according to Eule 1 0. 



EXERCISES. 

All nature demonstrates God's power and wisdom. 
Education expands and elevates the mind. Exercise 
ferments the humors, throws off redundancies, and assists 
nature. He is not sick, but discouraged. I will go on 
the river or railroad. She sings and plays delightfully. 
True religion gives our behavior a native and unaffected 
ease. The verdant lawn, the shady grove, the variega- 
ted landscape, the boundless ocean, and the starry fir- 
mament, are beautiful and magnificent objects. Wise 
and good men are frequently unsuccessful. 

NIGHT. 

The Grecian and Roman philosophers firmly be- 
lieved that "the dead of midnight is the noon of 
thought." One of them is beautifully described by the 
poet as soliciting knowledge from the skies, in private 
and nightly audience, and that neither his theme nor 
his nightly walks were forsaken till the sun appeared 
and dimmed his "nobler intellectual beam." We un- 
doubtedly owe to the studious nights of the ancients 



142 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

most of their elaborate and immortal productions. — 
Among them it was necessary that every man of letters 
should trim -the midnight lamp. The day might be 
given to the forum or the circus, but the night was the 
season for the statesman to project his schemes, and for 
the poet to pour his verse. 

Night has likewise, with great reason, been considered 
in every age as the astronomer's day. Young observes, 
with energy, that " an undevout astronomer is mad." 
The privilege of contemplating those brilliant and nu- 
merous myriads of planets which bedeck our skies is 
peculiar to night, and it is our duty, both as lovers of 
moral and natural beauty, to bless that season when we 
are indulged with such a gorgeous display of glittering 
and useful light. It must be confessed that the seclu- 
sion, calmness, and tranquility of midnight, is most 
friendly to serious, and even airy, contemplations. 

Joseph Dennie. 



OBSERVATIONS. 

A compound element may have a pronoun or verb 
agreeing with it, when either relates to two or more 
agents connected by a conjunction, as follows : 

1. The Predicate agrees with the agents taken conjointly in 
the plural ; as, John and Jane are present ; Jane and her brother 
were absent. 

2. If the Predicate agrees with the agents separately, it must 
be of the same number with the element next it ; as, Jane or 
her brother was absent ; Neither Jane or her brother is present ; 
Jane or her brothers were absent ; Either her brothers or 
Jane herself was absent, etc. 

3. When the Predicate agrees with one element, and not 
the other or others, it must be of the same number as the ele- 
ment with which it agrees; as, Jane, and not her brother, is 



EXERCISES. 143 

present; "Not Jane, but her brother, was absent; Jane, as 
well as her brother, was absent ; Not Jane, but her broth- 
ers, are present; Jane, and not her brothers, is absent, etc. 

4. When singular pronouns are connected disjunctively, the 
verb must agree in person with the agent placed nearest it ; as> 
I or Thou art correct ; Thou or lam in error; I or Thou or He 
is the author of it. 

Such construction as the last examples might well be avoid- 
ed ; and the following might, by usage, be more appropriate : 

Exainples-^I or Thou be correct ; Thou or / be in error ; I or 
Thou or He be the author of it. Or, with usage, more elegant : 
/ or You be correct ; You or I be in error ; He or You or I be 
the author of it, etc. 

OUR COUNTRY. 

What has God done, what is He doing, what is 
He about to do, in this land ? He has set it far 
away to the west, and made it so circumstantially 
independent, that, if all the rest of the habitable 
earth were sunk, we should feel no serious curtailment 
of our comforts. The products of the whole world are, 
or may soon be, found within our confederate limits. — 
He brought here first the sternest, most religious, most 
determined representatives of Europe's best blood, best 
faith, best intellect; men, ay, and women (it is the 
mother makes the child), who, because they feared God, 
feared no created power ; who, bowing before His abso- 
lute sovereignty, would kneel to no lord spiritual or 
temporal on earth ; and who, believing the Bible true, 
demanded its sanction for all law. To your Pilgrim 
Fathers, the highest place may well be accorded ; but 
forget not that, about the time of their landing on the 
Rock, there came to the mouth of the Hudson men of 
kindred faith and descent — men equally loving freedom 
— men from the sea-washed cradle of modern constitu- 
tional freedom, whose union of free burgher-cities 



144 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

taught us the lesson of confederate independent sover- 
eignties, whose sires were as free, long centuries before 
Magna Charta, as the English are now, and from whose 
line of republican princes Britain received the boon of 
religious toleration, a privilege the States- General had 
recognized as a primary article of their government 
when first established ; men of that stock, which, when 
offered their choice of favors Irom a grateful monarch, 
asked a University ; men whose martyr-sires had bap- 
tized their land with their blood ; men who had flooded 
it with ocean- waves rather than yield it to a bigot-tyrant ; 
men, whose virtues were sober as prose, but sublime as 
poetry, — the men of Holland! Mingled with these, 
and still farther on, were heroic Huguenots, their for- 
tunes broken, but their spirit unbending to prelate or 
prelate-ridden king. There were others (and a dash of 
cavalier blood told well in battle-field and council) ; — 
but those were the spirits whom God made the moral 
substratum of our national character. Here, like Israel 
in the wilderness, and thousands of miles off from the 
land of bondage, they were educated for their high call- 
ing, until, in the fullness of times, our confederacy with 
its Constitution was founded. Already there had been 
a salutary mixture of blood, but not enough to impair 
the Anglo-Saxon ascendency. The nation grew morally 
strong from its original elements. The great work was 
delayed only by a just preparation. Now, God is bring- 
ing hither the most vigorous scions from all the Euro- 
pean stocks, to " make of them all one neiv man ;" not 
the Saxon, not the German, not the Helvetian, but the 
American. Here they will unite as one brotherhood, 
will have one law, will share one interest. Spread over 
the vast region from the frigid to the torrid, from East- 
ern to Western ocean, every variety of climate giving 
them choice of pursuit and modification of temperament, 
the ballot-box fusing together all rivalries, they shall 
have one national will. What is wanting in one race 



AGENTS QUALIFIED BY OBJECTIVE ELEMENTS. 145 

will be supplied by the characteristic energies of the 
others ; and what is excessive in either, checked by the 
counter-action of the rest. Nay, though for a time the 
newly come may retain their foreign vernacular, our 
tongue, so rich in ennobling literature, will be the 
tongue of the nation, the language of its laws, and the 
accent of its majesty. Eternal God ! who seest the 
end with the beginning, thou alone canst tell the ulti- 
mate grandeur of this people ! 

George W. Bethune. 



AGENTS QUALIFIED BY OBJECTIVE 
ELEMENTS. 

As single words may be added to Agents (or Predi- 
cates), to show how, hoiv many, what, where, whom, 
whose, why, what hind, etc., so also to Agents may 
be added phrases — an infinitive, or & preposition and 
its object — to show how, what kind, etc. These 
Phrases often perform the same office as, and may be 
changed to, a single word ; as, A boy of industry will 
prosper ; An industrious boy will prosper. 

A Preposition is used as a Connective to join a 
noun or pronoun as an Object to an Agent (word or 
phrase), going before, on which the Object depends ; 
as, John comes with Samuel; Sarah went into the 
house ; She is calling for you, etc. 

Noet VII. Prepositions are used to connect words 
— showing a relation between nouns, etc. ; as, A man 
of abilities is Governor ; He went from Columbus to 
Washington, etc. 



146 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. A noun or pronoun used to complete the relation of a prep- 
osition must be in the objective case; as, James, come to me; 
She called por father; They gathered around him; "We 
moved toward them, etc. 

2. A word, clause or phrase may be the object of a preposi- 
tion ; as, I came in haste; This book is for you to study ; 
Very much depends on who the ministers will be, etc. 

3. An Objective element may be used without a Preposition 
after like, near, nigh and worth ; as, John is like Wil- 
liam ; Knowledge is worth toil and money, etc 

4. Before nouns denoting direction, distance, measure and 
time, the Preposition is understood; as, Benjamin goes east; 
Noah lived nine hundred and fifty years, etc. (Noah lived to 
the age of nine hundred and fifty years.) 

The Infinitive mode is a peculiar form of the verb, 
participating also in the properties of the noun ; as, 
Strength fails me ; To improve fails me ; I fail 
strength ; I iail to improve. 

The Infinitive may be used in a sentence to govern 
an Objective case connecting it to the Agent (word or 
phrase), on which the infinitive depends for its govern- 
ment ; as, I went to hear the music ; His desire to marry 
her is pleasing to himself, etc. 

Obs. — After bid, dare, feel, hear, help, let, make, need and 
see to of the infinitive is omitted ; as, I saw him stop there ; 
We heard Carey lecture on temperance, etc. 

2. Instead of a single adjective, a phrase, consisting of an 
infinitive, or a preposition and its object, called an adjective 
phrase or an adjective element, may be used to limit the agent ; 
as, My desire to go is changed ; The dew of the morning has 
passed away, etc. 



MODELS AND EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 147 

MODELS FOR ANALYZING AND PARSING. 

A man of abilities is Governor. 

A^majT of abilities is a complex agent, etc. 

Man is the grammatical agent, etc., (limited 

by of abilities, used as an adjective ele- 
ment, etc.,) nominative to is, according 
to Rule 1. 

Of is a preposition, connecting abilities to 

man, showing a superior relation, accord- 
ing to Note VII. 

Abilities . . . . is a noun, common, etc., objective case, 
governed by of, according to Kule 14. 

Is Governor ... is the predicate, etc. 

His intention to marry her is pleasing to himself. 

His intention to marry her is a complex agent, etc. 

Intention ....... is the grammatical agent, etc., 

(limited by to marry, used as 
an adjective element, etc.,) nom- 
inative to is, etc. 

To marry ....... is the present infinitive of the 

verb marry, governed by in- 
tention, according to Rule 33. 
The Infinitive Mode may be gov- 
erned by a noun, etc. 

Her is a personal pronoun, etc., in 

the objective case, governed by 
to marry, according to Rule 10. 



148 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

Charles went to Columbus. Do good to all men. 
Flowers bloom in spring. In spring flowers bloom. He 
gave part of his dinner to a poor boy in the street. 
Rivers flow into the sea. The temple of Solomon was 
destroyed. The joy of his youth was great. The true 
spirit of heroism is generous. . A desire to see you has 
brought me here. His intention to resign his office, he 
made known to the commander-in-chief. Time to come 
is called future. Their attempt to rescue their friends 
was fatal to themselves. We heard him publish and 
declare the same to be his last will and testament. 
These books are for you to read. A version near the 
original. He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers 
of water. It is nigh twelve o'clock.* Salvation is 
nigh them that fear the Lord. Adam lived nine hun- 
dred and thirty years. I dare do all that may become 
a man. Methuselah lived 969 years. Lord, if it be 
thou, bid me come to thee on the water. I have no 
greater joy than to hear that my children walk in truth. 
The glory of the Lord had filled the house of the Lord. 
Ye have received of us how ye ought to walk and to 
please God. 

POLITENESS. 

In politeness, as in many other things connected with 
the formation of character, people in general begin out- 
side, when they should begin inside ; instead of begin- 

*These phrases, What o'clock is it 9 It is twelve o'clock, seem 
to be contracted from What of the clock ? It is twelve of the 
clock, etc. 



PREDICATE QUALIFIED BY PHRASES. 149 

ning with the heart, and trusting that to form the man- 
ners, they begin with the manners, and trust the heart 
to chance influences. The golden rule contains the 
very life and soul of politeness. Children may be taught 
to make a graceful courtesy, or a gentlemanly bow ; but 
unless they have likewise been taught to abhor what is 
selfish, and always prefer another's comfort and pleasure 
to their own, their politeness will be entirely artificial, 
and used only when it is their interest to use it. On 
the other hand, a true benevolent, kind-hearted person 
will always be distinguished for what is called native 
politeness, though entirely ignorant of the conventional 
forms of society. Lydia Maria Child. 



PREDICATE QUALIFIED BY PHRASES. 

A Predicate may be qualified by an infinitive 
phrase, or a preposition and object ; as, I desire to 
read — to study; John wanted to sleep ; Silas is gone 
to Cincinnati ; They have returned with their teach- 
er, etc. 

model. 
I desire to read. 

Desire . is the predicate, qualified by to read. 

To read is the infinitive of the verb read, used to complete the 

meaning of the predicate desire, and is governed by 

it, according to Rule 33. 

EXERCISES. 

Bella began to sing. Darius was anxious to learn. 
John seemed to sleep. She was able to walk. We 



150 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

did not expect to find it. Angeline went to church. He 
sits on the sofa. She was at school. We will go with 
our parents. 

BUNYAN IN HIS CELL. 

He is sitting at his table to finish by sunlight the 
day's work, for the livelihood of his dear family, which 
they have prepared for him. On a little stool, his poor 
blind child sits by him, and with that expression of 
cheerful resignation with which God seals the counte- 
nance when He takes away the sight, the daughter 
turns her face up to her father as if she could see the 
affectionate expression with which he looks upon her 
and prattles to her. On the table and in the grated 
window there are three books, the Bible, the Concord- 
ance, and Bunyan's precious old copy of the Book of 
Martyrs. And now the day is waning, and his dear 
blind child must go home with the laces he has finished 
to her mother. And now Bunyan opens his Bible, and 
reads aloud a portion of Scripture to his little one, and 
encircling her in his arms and clasping her small hands 
in his, he kneels down on the cold stone floor, and 
pours out his soul in prayer to God for the salvation of 
those so inexpressibly dear to him, and for whom he 
has been all day working. This done, with a parting 
kiss, he dismisses her to her mother by the rough hands 
of the gaoler. George Bancroet. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

From the foregoing, it may be understood that, when 
one word or phrase is subordinately joined to another 
word or phrase limiting it, the two united form a 
Complex element. 



AGENTS QUALIFIED BY CLAUSES. 151 

It will now follow, necessarily, to show that two sen- 
tences may be joined so that one will be subordinate to 
the other, and limit it, forming a Complex Sentence. 



AGENTS QUALIFIED BY CLAUSES. 

A Subordinate 'proposition may be used to describe 
or limit an Agent ; as, The decision which was made 
is correct. 

A Limiting proposition joined to either an Agent 
or Predicate is subordinate, because it is dependent on 
a principal Proposition. 

Propositions which unite to form a sentence are 
called Clauses. 

By uniting a principal and a subordinate Proposi- 
tion, or clause, a complex sentence is formed ; the same, 
as the union of two or more dissimilar simple elements, 
form a Complex Element. 

In a complex sentence, formed by uniting two or more 
dissimilar simple sentences, the parts essential to a 
subordinate clause are a connective, an agent, and a 
predicate. 

jA. Conective may be called subordinate when it ren- 
ders the proposition which follows it subordinate to 
some part of the principal proposition with which it 
agrees. 

Subordinate connectives are used to join dissimilar 
elements; they are of three kinds — Conjunctions, Ad- 
verbs, and Relative Pronouns. 



152 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

A Subordinate connective always unites the clause 
which it introduces, to the word which the clause lim- 
its ; as, We observe that you enjoy religion. 

Subordinate clauses are divided according to their 
nature and use, into Substantive, Adjective, and Ad- 
verbial. 

A Substantive clause is a proposition performing 
the office of a noun ; as, Stealing is base ; To steal is 
base ; That one should steal is base, etc. 

An Adjective clause is an Adjective, adjective 
phrase, or Participle used to qualify a noun ; as, A 
pious lady ; A lady of piety ; A lady who is pious ; 
A lady possessing piety will be esteemed, etc. 

An Adverbial clause is an Adverb or an adverbial 
phrase used to qualify a verb, etc.; as, I came early ; 
They will go before sunrise ; They quit after the sun 
set, etc. 

Obs. — "When a clause is used to limit a noun or pronoun, 
it becomes an adjective element ; as, A Man who is benevolent 
will gain respect. The foregoing adjective element may be 
called an adjective clause. 

2. Adjective clauses are introduced by relative pronouns, 
serving to connect them with the antecedent; the relative 
agreeing with the antecedent in gender, person, and number ; 
as, A lady who is pious will be esteemed. The farm which 
my father sold was hilly. 

3. Relative pronouns often relate, not to a word, but to a 
preceding phrase or clause-, as, Thomas closed the blinds 
which darkened the room. 

4. The case of the relation depends upon the construction 
of the adjective clause; as, The boy who perseveres will be 



MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 153 

honored; The lady whose company was solicited has left the 
party ; The horse which I purchased is blind; The farm that 
we left was well improved, etc. 



MODEL. 

A lady who finds not engagement in herself, seeks in 
vain for it elsewhere. 

It is a complex sentence, because it contains two dissimilar 
clauses. 

Lady is the grammatical agent of the principal clause, and is 
limited by a, and also the adjective clause who 
feels no enjoyment in herself which is an adjec- 
tive element describing lady, to which it belongs. 
The logical element is a lady who finds not en- 
joyment IN HERSELF. 

Seeks . is the grammatical predicate, and is limited by in 
vain — for it — and elsewhere. 

The complex predicate is seeks in vain for it else- 
where. 

Who . . is the agent of the adjective clause, and is a relative 
pronoun, feminine gender, third person, singular num- 
ber, agreeing with lady its antecedent, according to 
Eule, 24 — and is in the nominative to finds, according 
to Eule 25. 

Finds . . is the predicate, and is limited by not, by enjoyment, 
and by in herself ; it is an irregular verb, transitive, 
indicative mode, present tense, third person, singular 
number, agreeing with its nominative represented by 
the relative who, according to Rule 2, etc. 



154 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

A man practicing evangelical piety will have enjoy- 
ment. Cannot the man who is faithfully attached to 
religion be relied on with confidence ? She whom I 
loved is dead. The globe on which we live, is but a 
planet. The opinion that children may grow up as 
they please, seems to prevail. The reason that he left 
his family in such peril, has not been satisfactorily given. 
Whatever violates nature cannot be innocent. Who- 
ever forgets a benefit, is an ungrateful enemy to society. 
Will not he whose desires are boundless always be rest- 
less ? Will not those who raise envy incur censure ? 
Your brother who wrote this essay deserves much 
praise. A lady who is benevolent will be esteemed. 
He left home before sunrise. The company retired at 
eleven o'clock. To use tobacco is filthy. That man 
using tobacco is filthy. The Court understands that 
the Jury all agree. The verdict which was given was 
contrary to common humanity. The boy shut the door 
and closed the blinds which darkened the room. The 
goods which the merchant purchased are damaged. 
The farm on which I was raised has become a waste. 

WOMAN. 

I have observed among all nations that the wo- 
men ornament themselves more than the men ; that, 
wherever found, they are the same kind, civil, ob- 
liging, humane, tender beings ; that they are ever in- 
clined to be gay and cheerful, timorous and modest. 
They do not hesitate, like man, to perform a hospitable 
or generous action ; not haughty, nor arrogant, nor 



PREDICATE MODIFIED. 155 

supercilious, but full of courtesy aud fond of society ; 
industrious, economical, ingenious ; more liable in gen- 
eral to err than man, but in general also more virtuous, 
and performing more good actions than he. I never 
addressed myself in the language of decency and friend- 
ship to a woman, whether civilized or savage, without 
receiving a decent and friendly answer. With man it 
has often been otherwise. In wandering over the bar- 
ren plains of inhospitable Denmark, through honest 
Sweden, frozen Lapland, rude and churlish Finland, 
unprincipled Russia, and the wide-spread regions of 
the wandering Tatar, if hungry, dry, cold, wet, or sick, 
woman has ever been friendly to me, and uniformly so ; 
and to add to this virtue, so worthy of the appellation 
of benevolence, these actions have been performed in so 
free and so kind a manner that, if I was dry, I drank 
the sweet draught, and, if hungry, ate the coarse mor- 
sel, with a double relish. — John Ledyard. 



THE PREDICATE MODIFIED BY THE AD- 
DITION OF CLAUSES. 

The meaning of a Transitive verb may be completed 
by a phrase — The Objective Element; instead of a 
word or clause ; as, I perceive that you have finished 
your week's labor. 

Objective clauses are clauses of a substantive char- 
acter in the Objective case. 

Obs. — In the Objective case Substantive, clauses mostly fol- 
low verbs denoting, 1st, some act or state of the mind ; an 
emotion perception or will ; as, I wish that you could assist 
me. 2nd. A declaration, order, or statement; as, John de- 
clared that his watch had stopped half an hour in the night. 



156 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS. 

Clauses like single Words or Phrases, may denote 
cause, manner, place, or time, and may, consequently, 
be named adverbial clauses. 

Adverbial clauses are generally introduced and con- 
nected by a class of words that may be denominated 
conjunctive adverbs ; as, The birds will sing when 
the day dawns. 

observations. 

1. Clauses denoting place answer the questions Where? 
Whence f Whither ? and may be introduced by the following 
conjunctive adverbs: — Where, whence, wherever, whither, 
whithersoever ; and the phrases, As far as, as long as, farther 
than, etc.; as, I stopped where night overtook me ; Where all 
is mercenary nothing can be magnanimous ; Whither I go ye 
cannot come, etc. 

2. Clauses denoting time answer the questions, How long f 
How often? When? and may be introduced by as, after, be- 
fore, ere, till, until, when, whenever, while, whilst, and — as long 
as, as soon as, no sooner, the instant, the moment etc.; as, 
Henry started home before the sun was down ; He fled from 
his post, as soon as the enemy appeared; When you have noth- 
ing to say, say nothing, etc. 

3. Clauses denoting manner answer the questions, How ? 
or Hoiu much ? and denotes : 1st. a Correspondence, gener- 
ally indicated by as, just as, so as. 2nd. A Consequence, in- 
dicated by so— that, such — that. 3rd. An Equality — by as — as ; 
and, 4th. Inequality — by than, less — than, more — than, etc.; as, 
Moses built the tabernacle, as he was commanded; Will you 
read so that you can be heard ; Is gravity always as wise as it 



ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS. 151 

appears. Happiness is much more equally distributed than 
some suppose, etc. 

4. Clauses denoting a cause or reason, a concession, a con- 
dition or a purpose, answering the questions, Why ? For what 
reasons ? On what condition ? may be introduced by as, 
because, for, since, whereas, etc.; as, He retired early, as he was 
much fatigued] I fled because I was afraid; They forgave him, 
since he acknowledged his fault ; We could not go, for it 
rained incessantly, etc. 

5. "Clauses expressing conditions under which Actions or 
Events may take place, may be introduced by such Connec- 
tives as except, if, through, unless, provided, that, etc.; as, He 
may return if he wishes; If you would enjoy health bathe 
often; Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish; We will 
leave to-morrow, unless our friends arrive, etc. The Verbs of 
these conditional clauses are in the Subjunctive mode. 

6. Clauses of an adversative character may sometimes be 
used when something is conceded as opposed to a result. The 
principle Connectives of these clauses are although, however, 
notwithstanding, though, while, and sometimes whatever, who- 
ever, etc., used as follows: Although the weather was unfavor- 
able, nevertheless he determined to return home ; However 
liberal he may seem, his daily support depends on his labor ; 
We see small faults in our neighbors, while we have greater 
ourselves, etc. 



EXERCISES. 

Edward, tell me why you are sad. Frank knew not 
where he was. He inquired, " Who comes here ?" The 
truly great consider first how they may gain the appro- 
bation of God. The soldiers stopped when night over- 
took them. Where your treasure is there will your 
8 



158 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

heart be also. When the million applaud you, seri- 
ously ask yourself what harm you have done. The 
age of miracles is passed, while that of prejudice re- 
mains. We hate some persons because we do not know 
them. Ye receive me not because ye know him not. 
A peace which consults the good of both parties, is the 
firmest, because both parties are interested in its preser- 
vation. Should it rain to-morrow, the lecture will be 
postponed. Were patrons more disinterested, ingrati- 
tude would be more rare. If you read my story you 
can judge for yourself. Though he was rich, yet for 
our sakes he became poor. However careless he might 
seem, his fortune depended upon the decision. Expe- 
rience is a surer guide than imagination. Can you 
paint the picture as she does. Our lesson is the same 
as that we had yesterday. 



THE FOURTH OF JULY. 

FROM A LETTER DATED ON THE THIRD OF JULY. 

Yesterday the greatest question was decided which 
ever was debated in America, and a greater, perhaps, 
never was nor will be decided among men. A resolu- 
tion was passed, without one dissenting colony, " that 
these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, 
free and independent States, and as such they have, and 
of right ought to have, full power to make war, con- 
clude peace, establish commerce, and to do all other 
acts and things which other States may rightfully do." 
You will see, in a few days, a Declaration setting forth 
the causes which have impelled us to this mighty revo- 
lution, and the reasons which will justify it in the sight 



ELEMENTS CONTAINING ELEMENTS. 159 

of God and man. A plan of confederation will be 
taken up in a few days. 

When I look back to the year 1161, and recollect the 
argument concerning writs of assistance in the superior 
court, which I have hitherto considered as the com- 
mencement of this controversy between Great Britain 
and America, and run through the whole period, from 
that time to this, and recollect the series of political 
events, the chain of causes and effects, I am surprised 
at the suddenness, as well as greatness, of this revolu- 
tion. Britain has been filled with folly, and America 
with wisdom ; at least, this is my judgment. Time 
must determine. It is the will of Heaven that the two 
countries must be sundered forever. It may be the will 
of Heaven that America shall suffer calamities still 
more wasting, and distresses yet more dreadful. If this 
is to be the case, it will have this good effect at least : 
It will inspire us with many virtues, which we have 
not, and correct many errors, follies, and vices which 
threaten to disturb, dishonor, and destroy us. The 
furnace of affliction produces refinement in states as well 
as individuals. And the new governments we are as- 
suming in every part, will require a purification from 
our vices, and an augmentation of our virtues, or they 
will be no blessings. The people will have unbounded 
power, and the people are extremely addicted to corrup- 
tion and venality, as well as the great. But I must 
submit all my hopes and fears to an overruling Provi- 
dence, in which, unfashionable as the faith may be, I 
firmly believe. John Adams. 



ELEMENTS CONTAINING CLAUSES. 

A Complex Element containing a clause, is formed 
by joining a subordinate clause to some word or phrase 



160 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

by a subordinate Connective ; as, I have brought the 
horse which you sent me for ; Hornets construct very 
curious nests, in which they deposit their eggs, etc. 

A Compound element may be formed by joining two 
or more subordinate clauses by a Conjunction of a co- 
ordinate character ; as, I soon perceived that I had the 
power of losing and of recovering them, and that I 
could, at pleasure, destroy and renew this beautiful 
part of my existence ; Brugere declares that we are 
come into the world too late to produce any thing new, 
that nature and life are preoccupied, and that descrip- 
tion and sentiment have been long since exhausted, etc. 



CLAUSES AND PHEASES USED AS AGENTS OK 
PREDICATES. 

A Substantive clause or a Substantive phrase 
either may be used as the agent of a sentence ; as, To 
steal is base ; That one should steal is base, etc. 

Sentences, as follows, may take either of two forms : 
The Agent may be placed before the Predicate, or it 
may be first represented by the expletive it, and then 
placed after the predicate ; as, To see the light is 
pleasant ; It is pleasant to see the light When it 
will be done is not certain ; It is not certain when it 
will be done, etc. 

The Predicate of a Proposition may be formed by 
means of the copula and a substantive or adjective 
phrase or a substantive clause; as, To obey is to 
enjoy ; George was in fault ; My desire is that you 
may succeed, etc. 



CLAUSES OR PHRASES. 161 



EXERCISES. 



Most of the palms bear fruit, which supplies the peo- 
ple where they grow with the greatest part of their 
food. The care which God takes of all his creatures is 
singularly shown in the modes in which the eggs of in- 
sects are preserved from cold or wet. I neither knew 
what I was, where I was, nor from whence I came. 
Amongst that number was an old man, who had fallen 
an early victim to adversity, and whose days of impris- 
onment, reckoned by the notches which he had cut on 
the door of his gloomy cell, expressed the annual cir- 
cuit of more than fifty suns. To be good is to be 
happy. To err is human. To acquire knowledge is 
necessary. To repent is our duty. It is wrong to 
hate our enemies. It is pleasant to receive our friends. 
It is easy to deceive children. That the earth is a 
sphere, is easily proved. Whether the truth will be 
made to appear, is uncertain. How he made his escape, 
is a mystery. It is a mystery how he made his escape. 
It is not certain when letters were first used. It is evi- 
dent that no man is justified by the law in the sight of 
God. Our word is not to be broken. The trees are in 
blossom. The prisoner is without friends. How shall 
the treasury be replenished, is the question. The 
question is, how shall the treasury be replenished. My 
determination is that I will attend church in the city. 
Your belief is that the millennium will be in eighteen 
hundred and sixty-four, 



162 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 



THE PERMISSION NOT THE PRODUCTION OF EVIL. 

There is a great difference between God being con- 
cerned thus, by his permission, in an event and act, which, 
in the inherent subject and agent of it, is sin, (though 
the event will certainly follow on his permission,) and 
his being concerned in it by producing it and exerting 
the act of sin ; or between his being the orderer of its 
certain existence by not hindering it, under certain cir- 
cumstances, and his being the proper actor or author 
of it, by a positive agency or efficiency. As there is 
a vast difference between the sun being the cause of the 
lightsomeness and warmth of the atmosphere, and the 
brightness of gold and diamonds, by its presence and 
positive influence ; and its being the occasion of dark- 
ness and frost, in the night, by its motion whereby it 
descends below the horizon. The motion of the sun is 
the occasion of the latter kind of events ; but it is not 
the proper cause efficient or producer of them ; though 
they are necessarily consequent on that motion, under 
such circumstances ; no more is any action of the Di- 
vine Being the cause of the evil of men's wills. If the 
sun was the proper cause of cold and darkness, it 
would be the fountain of these things, as it is the 
fountain of light and heat ; and then something might 
be argued from the nature of cold and darkness, to a 
likeness of nature in the sun ; and it might be justly 
inferred, that the sun itself is dark and cold, and that 
his beams are black and frosty. But from its being the 
cause no otherwise than by its departure, no such thing 
can be inferred, but the contrary ; it may justly be 
argued, that the sun is a bright and hot body, if cold 
and darkness are found to be the consequence of its 
withdrawment ; and the more constantly and necessa- 
rily these effects are connected with, and confined to its 
absence, the more strongly does it argue the sun to be 
the fountain of light and heat. So, inasmuch as sin is 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 163 

not the fruit of any positive agency or influence of the 
Most High, but, on the contrary, arises from the with- 
holding of his action and energy, and, under certain 
circumstances, necessarily follows on the want of his 
influence ; this is no argument that he is sinful, or his 
operation evil, or has anything of the nature of evil ; 
but, on the contrary, that he, and his agency are alto- 
gether good and holy, and that he is the fountain of all 
holiness. Jonathan Edwards. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

A Compound Sentence is formed by joining two or 
more principle clauses, equal in rank or coordinate in 
character. 

Coordinate clauses may be divided into three classes, 
according to the connective used : Copulative, Adver- 
sative and Alternative. 

A Copulative clause is one that is so united to an- 
other as to express an additional thought, and thereby 
give a greater extent to its meaning ; as, Hand me my 
hat, and I will get you your shawl. 

An Adersative (coordinate) clause is one which stands 
opposed to, or contrasted with, the preceding clause ; 
as, " Yice stings us in our pleasures, but virtue consoles 
us in our pains." 

Alternative clauses are such as offer or deny a choice 
between two statements ; as, We must defend our rights, 
or our liberties will be lost. 



164 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Obs. — Two connectives are often used — one being placed in 
the first, and the other in the added, clause : the two may be 
called correlatives; as, Not only instructing is this exercise, but it 
is invigorating. But when both connectives are found in the 
added clause, the second may be called an associate : it giving 
some additional meaning to the clause ; as, Lizzie is studying 
French, and beside she is learning music. The associate con- 
nective stands alone, when the principal conjunction is under- 
stood ; as, The rain has abated, therefore let us commence our 
labor. 

Compound sentences may be analyzed and parsed by taking 
each clause separately, etc. 



EXERCISES. 

A clownish air is but a small defect, still it is enough 
to make a man disagreeable. A jest is not an argu- 
ment, nor is a loud laugh a demonstration. Green is 
the most refreshing color to the eyes ; hence Providence 
has made it the common dress of nature. He is either 
sick or fatigued. I conceived a great regard for him, 
and I could not but mourn for the loss he had sus- 
tained. I have none, else would I give it. I neither 
learned wisdom, nor have I a knowledge of righteous- 
ness. I strenuously opposed those measures, but it was 
not in my power to prevent them. I was eyes to the 
blind, and feet was I to the lame. She either left the 
key in the door, or else the robber had a false one. — 
Some men know but little of their profession, but yet 
they often succeed in life better than those whose attain- 
ments they can never reach. The more sleek the prey, 
the greater the temptation ; and no wolf will leave a 



EXERCISES. 165 

sheep to dine on a porcupine. The office is not suited 
to his mind ; and the compensation, moreover, is meager. 
This part of knowledge has been growing ; and it will 
continue to grow, till the subject be exhausted. We 
submit to the society of those that can inform us, but 
we seek the society of those whom we can instruct. 

NEED OF A NATIONAL LITERATURE. 

In order that America may take its due rank in the 
commonwealth of nations, a literature is needed which 
shall be the exponent of its higher life. We live in 
times of turbulence and change. There is a general 
dissatisfaction, manifesting itself often in rude contests 
and ruder speech, with the gulf which separates princi- 
ples from actions. Men are struggling to realize dim 
ideals of right and truth, and each failure adds to the 
desperate earnestness of their efforts. Beneath all the 
shrewdness and selfishness of the American character, 
there is a smouldering enthusiasm which flames out at 
the first touch of fire, sometimes at the hot and hasty 
words of party, and sometimes at the bidding of great 
thoughts and unselfish principles. The heart of the 
nation is easily stirred to its depths ; but those who 
rouse its fiery impulses into action are often men com- 
pounded of ignorance and wickedness, and wholly unfit- 
ted to guide the passions which they are able to excite. 
There is no country in the world which has nobler ideas 
embodied in more worthless shapes. All our factions, 
fanaticisms, reforms, parties, creeds, ridiculous and dan- 
gerous though they often appear, are founded on some 
aspiration or reality which deserves a better form and 
expression. There is a mighty power in great speech. 
If the sources of what we call our fooleries and faults 
were rightly addressed, they would echo more majestic 
and kindling truths. We want a poetry which shall 



166 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

speak in clear, loud tones to the people ; a poetry which 
shall make us more in love with our native land by con- 
verting its ennobling scenery into the images of lofty 
thoughts ; which shall give visible form and life to the 
abstract ideas of our written constitution ; which shall 
confer upon virtue all the strength of principle, and all 
the energy of passion ; which shall disentangle freedom 
from cant and senseless hyperbole, and render it a thing 
of such loveliness and grandeur as to justify all self- 
sacrifice ; which shall make us love man by the new con- 
secrations it sheds on his life and destiny ; which shall 
force through the thin partitions of conventionalism and 
expediency, vindicate the majesty of reason, give new 
power to the voice of conscience, and new vitality to 
human affection, soften and elevate passion, guide enthu- 
siasm in a right direction, and speak out in the high 
language of men to a nation of men. 

Edwin P. Whipple. 



COMPOSITION AND ARRANGEMENT 
OF WORDS. 

A very important guide to understand an idea, or the 
subject matter contained in a sentence, is the arrange- 
ment and the position of the words composing the 
sentence. 

In the American language there is less latitude in the 
variation and change of words in their different rela- 
tions than in many others. 

Such an arrangement of the words in a sentence 
should be made as will forcibly and clearly express the 
idea intended to be conveyed. 



COMPOSITION — NOUNS. 167 

Obs. — In poetry and poetic composition great latitude is al- 
lowed, and any arrangement which will not naturally obscure 
the sense may be made. Such liberty is necessary in order to 
secure the harmony and rhymth peculiar to composition of that 
character. In the composition of poetry, this general excep- 
tion to principles of composition is, therefore, to be understood. 



SPECIAL PKINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION. 
The agent should generally be placed before the pred- 
icate ; as, God — rules; Earth and planets — revolve 
around the sun. 

Obs. — The different parts of an agent and predicate are fre- 
quently so intermingled that a perfect understanding of the 
meaning which the sentence contains is requisite, in order to 
separate them. This is especially true in poetry and poetic 
composition. 



NOUNS. 

I. The nominative case, together with its depend- 
ent words, is generally placed before its verb ; as, Je- 
hovah governs ; A great Jehovah of infinite wisdom 
and power governs the universe, etc. 

exceptions. 

The nominative generally comes after the verb or 
its first auxiliary. 

1. In questions, except when who or which is the agent; as, 



168 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Has she come ? Stands Boston where it did ? Where did he 
go ? Will we return ? etc. 

2. In a conditional expression without a conjunction; as, Had 
i seen it ? 7s it possible ? Will you consent ? etc. 

3. In the Imperative mode ; as. Hear you ! Arise you Amer- 
icans ! Strike ye for liberty, etc. 

4. Frequently, when the verb is preceded by an adverb; as, 
Hence arises the controversy ; Here is the Constitution ; 
There was no one* present ; Yet will be the demand, etc. 

5. For the sake of emphasis ; as, Awake thou that sleep- 
est ; Blessed are the poor in spirit ; Bejoice O young men. 

6. The nominative attribute is sometimes placed after the 
verb ; as New York is A city ; "Washington was A great 
man, etc. 

II. The possessive case should generally come im- 
mediately before the noun possessed ; as, That is Rob- 
ert's book ; This is my father's birthplace; We enjoy 
our liberty ; That book is Robert's (book) ; This 
birthplace is my father's (birthplace) ; The liberty 
we enjoy is our liberty, etc. 

Obs. — Words should not unnecessarily intervene between 
the possessive and the thing possessed; as, He admired the 
belle's (as he called her) superior beauty ; for, He admired 
the superior beauty of the belle, as he called her — He ad- 
mired the belle's beauty. 

2. Words may sometimes appropriately intervene between 
the possessive and the thing possessed; as, He became the 
traitor's willing and obedient servant; This is their's as 
well as our opinion, etc. 

* No one, frequently contracted none in similar constructions, 
is now becoming obsolete. Instead of no one person, no per- 
son present is much more preferable. 



PRONOUNS. 169 

III. The objective case generally follows the verb 
or preposition of which it is the object ; as, God cre- 
ated the world ; Turn to righteousness, etc. 

Exception. — Emphasis admits the object before the verb; 
as, Gold and silyer have I none; Me he spared; him he de- 
stroyed, etc. 

Obs. — The object generally should not be placed far from 
its governing word ; as, This is the man whom we have so 
often spoken of — of whom, etc. 

2. "When two prepositions or two verbs have the same object, 
the latter is necessarily placed at some distance from one of the 
former ; as, We have heard of, and even have been influenced 
by, rumors of this kind ; We have long suspected, and have 
now proved, the existence of the danger, etc. 

IV. The independent case is generally placed at 
or near the beginning of a sentence ; as, James, come 
to me ; My Fathers, this is an awful crisis ; Statesmen, 
Soldiers, and Friends, hear our country's call, etc. 

V. A noun in apposition is generally placed after 
the noun with which it agrees ; as, General Cass the 
Secretary is present ; Bethune the scholar, poet and 
christian has written this, etc. 

Exception. — Sometimes the noun in apposition precedes; as, 
The Statesman General Cass is absent, etc. 



PRONOUNS. 

A greater latitude is admissible in the position of 
pronouns, because their cases are, to a considerable 
extent, denoted by their form. 



nO AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

I. In the same sentence, when different personal 
pronouns are used, the second should be placed first, 
the third next, and the first last ; as, You and her and 
/will agree, etc. 

II. The relative pronoun should be placed as 
near its antecedent as possible ; as, I, who bid you, am 
the man — not, 2" am the man who bid you ; Joseph left 
his mother in anger who had never lost his temper be- 
fore — Joseph , who, etc. 

III. When the relative that is in the objective, it 
must precede its governing word ; as, He is the boy 
that I saw ; This is the grammar that I referred to ; 
Which is the error that you observed, etc. 

IV. Pronouns, used interrogatively, are generally 
placed at the beginning of a sentence ; as, Which is 
the man ? Whom have you seen ? Who will be there ? 



VERBS. 

I. Transitive verbs generally are placed between 
the Agent and Object ; as, God made man ; Large 
cities contain many fine houses, etc. 

II. Intransitive verbs are mostly placed after the 
Agents with which they agree ; as, Amanda rejects ; 
William lies in bed ; Ye would despair, or, at least, 
despond, etc. 



THE ADJECTIVE. Ill 

EXCEPTIONS. 

The verb, or its first auxiliary, comes before the Agent : 

1. In interrogative sentences, except when Who or Which is 
the Agent ; as, Can he go ? Has she improved ? Stands Bos- 
ton where it did ? etc. 

2. In a conditional expression without a conjunctive; as, I 
would have spoke, had J known it was Amanda; They would 
rebuke us, were we to do so, etc. 

3. In the imperative mode; as, Hear you — do you hear? 
Be you obeyed ? Do you be governed, etc. 

4. Frequently when an Adverb precedes a verb, the Agent 
follows ; as, Hence appears the particular character ; Here is 
the Act and Testimony] There was no person absent; Yet 
will come the truth, etc. 

5. For the sake of emphasis ; as, Blessed are the meek ; 
Awake, why sleepest thou! Kejoice ye in that day, and leap 
for joy, etc. 

6. The nominative attribute is sometimes used after the verb; 
as, Columbus is A beautiful city ; Jefferson was a great states- 
man, etc. 

7. Emphasis sometimes admits the objective case before the 
verb ; as, Gold and silver have I none ; Me he spared ; him 
he destroyed, etc. 

Obs. — "When two verbs have the same object, the latter will 
be placed some distance from the former ; as, "We have long 
suspected, and now we have discovered, the truth of his 
guilt, etc. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 

I. An Adjective is generally placed before the 
noun with which it is used ; as, A boy ; A pretty child) 
The white house ; This farm, etc. 



172 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

The adjective follows the noun : 

1. When other words are connected with it; as, A dress 
convenient for a lady ; A man eem ark able for industry, etc. 

2. When adjectives become a direct attribute ; as, God 
is allwise ; Man is mortal, etc. 

3. When it qualifies & pronoun; as, Night overtook us, dis- 
couraged and weary, etc. 

4. When it becomes part of a title ; as, Adams the elo- 
quent ; Jefferson the eaihtful ; Washington the great, etc. 

5. When it modifies a verb ; as, God created man holy ; We 
have made ourselves sinful, etc. 

II. The adjectives A, an, or the, generally precede 
other adjectives ; as, A virtuous woman ; an obedient 
child ; the early fathers, etc. 

Exceptions. — All, both, double, many, such, and adjectives used 
after as, how, so, and too, generally precede A, an and the; as, 
All the people ; Both the boys; Double the quantity ; Many 
an eye ; Such a day ; As large A stone ; How dangerous the 
adventure ; So great an eagle ; Too honest a man, etc. 

III. The adjective should be placed so near its noun 
as not to occasion obscurity ; as, A pair of new shoes — 
not, A new pair of shoes ; Gentlemen's black gloves — 
not Black gentlemen's gloves ; Ladies' fine bonnets — 
not Fine ladies' bonnets, etc. 

Obs. — In poetry and poetic composition in general, Adjec- 
tives admit of a great variety of arrangement. See Observa- 
tion, special principle I. 



ADVERBS. It 



THE ADVERB. 

Adverbs should be placed as near the words they 
qualify as possible. 

I. Adverbs generally precede an adjective ; as, She 
is extremely delicate ; They are very happy } etc. 

Exception — The adverb enough always follows the adjec- 
tive; as, Able enough; Good enough; Wise enough, etc. 

II. Adverbs may be placed before or after a verb, 
or between the auxiliary and verb ; as, I always judge 
a man by his company ; Our sisters lived happily ; She 
always* acted prudently; Whoever did strictly 
cease from sinning, etc. 

III. Emphasis brings an adverb forward in a sen- 
tence ; as, Finally, brethren, farewell ; How nobly he 
defended us ; Powerfully he produced the phenome- 
non, etc. 

IY. An adverb should not intervene between to 
and the verb of the infinitive ; as, He is able to abund- 
antly support her — He is abundantly able to sup- 
port her, etc. 

Obs. — The importance of placing the adverb near the word 
it qualifies, where the meaning depends on the arrangement, is 
exemplified by the following examples : Only John saw Jane ; 
John only saw Jane ; John saw Jane only, etc. 

• At all times — always is now seldom used by good writers. 
*8 



H4 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 



PREPOSITIONS. 

A preposition should be placed near the word with 
which it is used, to show a relation ; as, Jane went with 
James ; Your father will come for you ; John was 
beyond Jordan, etc. 

I. Prepositions are usually placed before the nouns 
or pronouns to which they refer ; as, He gave part op 
his dinner to a poor man in the street ; She received 
it from us with joy, etc. 

II. When two prepositions have the same noun or 
pronoun, one necessarily will be placed some distance 
from the object ; as, We often hear of, and frequently 
be influenced by, fame of this kind, etc. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 

Conjunctions are usually placed between the words 
or sentences which they connect ; as, James and John 
have returned from town ; He is gone, and i" am left 
alone ; She or he was in fault ; Stephen is disappointed 
because his friends thought they could swear his cause 
through, etc. 

Obs. — Corresponding conjunctions are placed, the one be- 
fore the first word or clause, and the other before the second; 
as, Neither persuasion nor threats could reach him ; Though 
life is brief, yet it is full of interest, etc. 



FALSE-SYNTAXIS AND SOLECISMS. 175 

THE PARTICIPLE. 

Participles usually refer to nouns or pronouns. 

I. When participles retain their verbal character, 
they usually follow the noun or pronoun ; as, Clouds 
floating, or at rest, are beautiful ; The sun shining 
illuminates and fructifies our earth ; Washington hav- 
ing resigned his commission, retired to private life, etc. 

II. When participles partake more of the charac- 
ter of nouns and adjectives, they generally precede the 
noun or pronoun ; as, Floating clouds; Shining 
sun, etc. 

Interjections may be placed in any part of a sen- 
tence except its close. 



FALSE-SYKTAXIS AND SOLECISMS. 

Fallacies or False- Syntaxis is an incongruity of 
words, a gross deviation or impropriety in language 
violating the rules of syntax. 

In Conversation, Composition, and Public Speaking 
such fallacies and improprieties as follows should be 
avoided : — 

Ojbs. — In studying the principles and rules of our Language, 
such errors as are contained in the following exercises should 
be critically observed and corrected, the sentences analyzed, 
the words classified and parsed. 



H6 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

OF NOUNS AND PEONOUNS. 

1. Avoid using (and parsing) a Noun in the nom- 
inative case without a Verb ; as, The boy, if he had 
obeyed his father, much trouble would have been saved, 
(If the boy had obeyed, etc.) 

2. In Pronouns avoid using the objective for the 
nominative ; as, Him and me are here (he and I.) 

3. Avoid using the objective for the nominative 
absolute ; as, Him destroyed, all will soon leave ; Her 
having arrived, we proceeded on our journey, (He de- 
stroyed; She having returned, etc.) 

Obs. — A corrupt use of the objective case seldom occurs ex- 
cept in the use of relative pronouns. 

4. Avoid improperly making plural a noun following 
a plural possessive ; as, The women's good virtues 
saved them, (virtue.) 

5. When a singular nominative is joined to a 
plural or collective noun, avoid making the verb and 
pronoun plural ; as, Amanda with her sisters have 
gone, (has gone;) Not one of the passengers were 
conscious of their danger, (Not one passenger was 
conscious of his danger — or his or her danger.) 

6. When nouns are united in a way which shows that 
they are considered separately, avoid the use of the 
plural verb ; as, Patriotism as well as industry or 
honesty are required, (is required.) 

i. In the possessive case, avoid the improper omis- 
sion, or use of the apostrophe or sign ; as, Silas' 



FALLACIES — NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. If 7 

horses; The students' book ; Womens' shoes ; (Silas's, 
student's, women's, etc.) 

8. Avoid using several nouns together in the posses- 
sive case ; as, Elie's wife's sister, for The sister of Elie's 
wife ; Mardula's aunt's house, for the house of Mar- 
dula's aunt, etc. 

9. Avoid the use of the sign in the possessive case 
of pronouns ; as, Hers\ hi'Sj ours\ yours\ etc., for 
Hers, his, ours, yours, etc. 

10. Avoid the superfluous use of possessive pro- 
nouns; as, He boasted of his having deceived his 
friends ; (of having deceived, etc.) She spoke of her 
going home, etc. 

11. Avoid the use of his and her instead of the sign 
of the possessive ; as, Hugh his manual ; Mary her 
album ; (Hugh's manual ; Mary's album,) etc. 

12. In the same construction avoid the use of differ- 
ent pronouns of the same person ; as, Beautiful art 
thou, and dangerous are your charms ; This is the man 
that was injured, and who was referred to, etc. 

13. Relative Pronouns. — Avoid using the Nomi- 
native for the Objective ; as, Who did you see, 
(Whom did you see,) etc. 

14. Avoid the use of the nominative instead of the 
objective with a preposition in connection ; as, Who 
did he go for ; Who did you send to ; Who was it in- 
vented by ; (For whom did he go ; To whom did you 
send ; By whom was it invented,) etc. 

15. Avoid the use of plural for singular pronouns ; 



178 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

as, Each one of them must answer for themselves ; 
(Answer for himself or herself,) etc. 

16. Avoid the use of the singular for the plural; 
as, Pride and vanity will soon show itself, (them- 
selves,) etc. 

IT Avoid the improper use of the pronouns who 
and which ; as, This is the man which I saw, (that I 
saw ;) That is the tree whom I planted, (which I 
planted,) etc. 

18. Avoid an unnecessary use of who and which ; 
as, I have described the women who and the customs 
which I saw, (The women and customs that I saw,) etc. 



exercises to be corrected, analyzed, classified, 
and parsed. 

James' book. My partners house. One boys' shoes. 
[Righteousness* s sake. The ladies bonnet. 
The childrens' books. The men's hats. The Oxens' yoke. 
The valleys' slope. The boy's caps. 

Ann as well as Arietta's books were torn. 

A mans manners frequently influences his fortune's. 

Asa his heart was perfect with the Lord. 

George and Thomas's boots were lost. 

He was ashamed of his having conducted so improperly , 

He had not heard of the prisoner escaping. 

He preached twice on the day of the Lord. 

His brother's wife's sister was present at the wedding. 

His friend's partner's house was burned to the ground. 

His father's picture is a good likeness of him. 

I was at Mr. Mains, the merchant's. 

I did not know of him being there. 



FALLACIES — EXERCISES. 179 

I have found a vail of my sister. 

Paul's, the Apostle's, epistles were written in the first century. 

The hooks are hi's, not our's nor your's. 

There is danger of pleasure tempting us to our ruin. 

That is my wife's "brother's partner's horse. 

Wisdoms precepts' forms the good mans' happiness. 

Fear him who can destroy ye. 

Fear God, even him who can reward and punish. 

He and they we know, hut who art thou ? 

He invited my "brother and I to dine with him. 

He who committed the offence, not I who am innocent. You 

should correct. She that is idle reprove. 
His servants are ye whom ye ohey. 
Let them and us unite to oppose evil. 
These are friends who we should cordially esteem. 
They who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has 

corrupted, cannot relish simple pleasures. 
The ohject was made sport of. 
The nearer his virtues approached him to the great example, 

the more humhle he "became. 
Turn thee here, and rest thee awhile. 
We do not allow of such conduct. 
Who did they entertain ? Who shall we call ? 
Ye, who were dead, hath him quickened. 

Among men, Solomon was the wisest whom the world has 

seen. 
A parent alone can understand their feelings toward the 

children which God has given them. 
Each one of them formed their judgment hastily. 
Each one of you formed your judgment hastily. 
Each one of us formed our judgment hastily. 
Each one should think how many are more unfortunate than 

theirselves. 
He is the same man who was a candidate at the last election. 



180 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

I doubt not but what he will resign. 

I have not forgotten the singular man and remarkable ani- 
mals which I saw. 

In religious matters, or what is considered such, every man 
must judge for himself. 

Mary or Ann will certainly bring their scissors. 

Neither wealth nor talent will save their possesor from death. 

Take a handful of ashes, and let Moses sprinkle it toward 
Heaven. The army solicited its winter quarters. 

The male among birds is remarkable for its beauty. 

They which seek wisdom will certainly find her. 

The man died, making the third who have lost their lives 
there. 

Thy lips are like a thread of scarlet, and your speech is 
comely. 

The mind of man must have food for his thoughts. 

They are the very things which are important,*and will nat- 
urally attract. 

"Who, who understands the horrors of war can be its advocate. 



OF VEKBS. 

In employing Verbs avoid improprieties in usage as 
given by the following examples : 

1. In employing Verbs avoid using an intransitive 
for a transitive, or following an intransitive with an 
object ; as, He repented him of the act, (repented of 
the act;) God alone differs one from another, (causes 
one to differ ;) He should agree his conduct with his 
profession, etc. 

2. Avoid using a transitive Verb as intransitive 



FALLACIES. 181 

or without an object ; as, Demagogues ingratiate 
with the populace (ingratiate themselves) ; I must 
complete with him {comply, or complete the con- 
tract), etc. 

3. Avoid using a Verb without a nominative ; as, 
It hath pleased him to give deliverance, and hath pre- 
served you. 

4. In the use of Verbs intransitive, or Yerbs in the 
passive voice taking the same case after as before them, 
the only error is making the cases different ; as, It is not 
me (It is not I) ; Who do you think him to be, 
Whom do men say that I am, etc. 

5. Avoid the common error of using the wrong tense 
of the Infinitive mode ; as, I intended to have gone 
(intended to go) ; She intended to have written before 
this (intended to write), etc. 

6. Avoid using to as a substitute for the Infinitive, 
or its improper use or omission ; as, I have not written, 
nor do I intend to (write) ; She need not to admire 
herself so much; They ought not complain of their 
lot, etc. 

?. Avoid the use of the pre-present tense indica- 
tive, for the perfect participle ; as, He has arose 
(arisen).; I have wrote (written); She has drove 
(driven) ; The coat was tore (torn) ; The limb was 
broke (broken) ; Our clothes was wore (worn), etc. 

8. In expressing a general proposition, avoid using 
the past tense for the present ; as, Comstock taught 
that the air was forty-five miles high, (is.) He claimed 



182 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

that virtue was its own reward ; We were taught that 
Gcodlgoverned the world (governs), etc. 

9. Avoid the use of the tenses which do not corres- 
pond with each other, and with the meaning intended 
to be conveyed ; as, He can come if he chose (if he 
chooses) ; She could have went if she chose (had 
chosen) ; She was so ill that I feared she would have 
died (die), etc. 

10. Avoid using different forms of the same tense in 
the same sentence ; as, The Lord gives and the Lord 
taketh away (gives and takes, or giveth and taketh). 

11. Avoid the common and improper use of had for 
would ; as, He had better not run the hazard (He 
would better not) ; I had rather not go (I would 
rather), etc. 

12. Avoid an improper ellipsis in tenses connected 
with each other ; as, He has and will live for man- 
kind (has lived) ; I talways has and always will be 
so (has been), etc. 

13. Carefully avoid the very common errors of using 
Verbs differing in number from their nominatives ; as, 
The rapidity of his movements were beyond example 
(was) ; Wings is on her feet (are) ; Riches and 
fame renders no man happy (render) ; Wisdom and 
folly govern us ; Wisdom and not wealth procure es- 
teem, etc. 

exercises for correction, etc. 

A good citizen and an honest man have departed. 
A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. 



FALLACIES — EXERCISES. 183 

Disappointments sinks the heart of man. 

Has the goods been sold? 

Has thou no better reason for censuring thy friend ? 

He with others have judged hastily. Her and me meets daily. 

In his speeches are found much information. 

James with his parents have returned. 

Many days have been lost. 

Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits delights some persons. 

Nor he nor I are capable of harboring a thought against your 
peace. Neither riches nor fame render a man happy. 

Kudeness of manners disgust us. 

So much of ability and merit are seldom found. 

The honest is always respected. 

That superficial scholar and critic have shown great ignorance. 

This are not the class of classes referred to. 

The number of inhabitants do not exceed twenty-nine millions. 

Thou should love thy neighbor as thou loves thyself. 

To live humbly and righteously are required of all. 

To do to others as we would that they should do to us, consti- 
tute the great principle of virtue. 

To be ashamed of virtue which the heart approves, mark a 
feeble character. 

Whom do he think will suffer most? 

"What avails the best feelings without principle? 

A tart reply, a proneness to rebuke, or a captious spirit, em- 
bitter domestic life. 

Duty as well as interest require honesty in all our dealings. 

Each one of them have much labor on their hands. 

Every one of the topics are of the utmost importance. 

Great pains has been taken to reconcile the parties. 

Him being preserved, the work do prosper. 

Man is not a clock or watch which move merely as they are 
moved. 

Man's happiness or misery are in their own hands. 



184 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Neither Mary or Aerietta have retimed. 

Not one of them, were completely happy. 

Not one of those present were satisfied with the explanation. 

One added to ninety-nine, make a hundred. 

Speaking wrong, or thinking wrong, are forbidden by the 

spirit of the Gospel. 
There are many faults in spelling which neither analogy nor 

pronunciation justify. 
Those men if we had seen them, we should have obtained 

their consent. 
Virtue, joined to knowledge, confer influence. 
Virtue, however neglected, men respects it in heart. 
"When sickness, infirmity, or misfortune affect us, the value 

of friends are tested. 
From the resemblance, I took it to be her that sings. 
I believe it to have been them that done it. 
If it was not him, who could it have been ? 
I know not whether it was thern, but I know it were not him. 
I know not the person, unless it are him whom I have already 

mentioned. 
It were me, be not afraid. It were not her, but her sister. 
It may have been them, but it are not certain. 
I would return if I were him. 
They am them which testify of me. 
"We have always supposed it to be her who is entitled to the 

praise. "Were you sure of its being him ? 
Who would have dreamed of its being him? 
Who do she think him to be ? 
W 7 hom does men say that I am? 

And the multitude wondered when they saw the lame to walk 

and the blind to see. 
Bid the wild waves their lawless rage to restrain. 
He needs not to conceal himself so carefully. 
I desired to have returned earlier. 



FALLACIES — EXERCISES. 185 

I have not been, nor do I intend to. 

I have not discovered their residence, and I shall no longer 

attempt to. 
I have not seen them, and I do not wish to. 
I hoped to have the pleasure of seeing her. 
I perceive him to have a halt in his gait. 
I would have all men to understand the truth. 
The nation expected to have seen a very different result. 
They wished very much to have sailed before the equinox. 
They read constantly, because they love to. 
We often see men to conduct themselves very independently. 
We ought not to complain of our lot. 
We cannot make men to forget their interests. 
Who dares to deny his accountability ? 
Who has not heard many, even in wealth, to complain of 

their troubles ? Will you help me to read this lesson ? 
Will you call to father? 



OF ADJECTIVES. 

In using Adjectives, let the following and similar im- 
proprieties be avoided : 

1. After Adjectives requiring the singular number, 
such as, each, either, every, neither, etc., avoid the 
use of the plural ; as, Each of them have spoken for 
themselves (has spoken for himself), etc. 

2. Avoid the use of Adverbs for Adjectives ; as, 
It is a delightfully prospect (delightful, etc.); They 
arrived safely (safe), etc. 

3. Avoid using the Pronoun them for the Adjective 
those ; as, Bring me them books (those, etc.); See 
them beautiful clouds, etc. 



186 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

4. Avoid using this here and that there for this and 
that ; as, This here house (this house) ; That there 
book (that book), etc. 

5. Avoid ambiguity occasioned by the improper use 
or omission of an Adjective ; as, He gained a few 
friends (He gained few friends) ; He gained few friends 
(He gained a few friends) ; A large blue and red flag 
(A large blue, and a large red flag). 

6. Avoid the use of double comparatives and super- 
latives ; as, The first witness gave a strong proof of 
the fact, the next more stronger, but the last witness the 
most stronger of all ; He is the most noblest of men 
(most noble). 

T, Avoid the improper use of the comparative and 
superlative ; as, Eve was the fairest of her daughters 
(fairer than any of her daughters) ; Solomon wiser 
than any man (the wisest of men). 

8. Avoid using a comparative or superlative to Ad- 
jectives which do not admit of comparison ; as, Agri- 
culture is the chief est employment of men ; He is the 
supremest officer in the United States ; The lesser 
breaches of the law, etc. 

exercises for correction, etc. 

A "black and white man were present. 

After the most strictest sect I lived a Pharisee. 

A large and small house were in front of the garden. 

A lion shall eat straw like an ox. 

A red and white ox were yoked together. 

A rose is the beautiful flower. 

Edwin is the tallest of his brothers. 



FALSE-SYNTAXIS AND SOLECISMS. 187 

Elizabeth was more powerful than any queen. 

Every ten years the same thing occurs. 

Give me a cool glass of water. 

Give me that there knife, for this here one is dull. 

God created the heaven and earth, and divided the light from 

darkness; and the evening and the morning were the 

first day. Gravitation is a most universal law. 
He may he a judge or lawyer. Horses is an noble animal. 
He was admitted to the chiefest office. 
He is a young respectable man. 
He bought a old span of horses. 
He was censured for a little attention to his business. 
His obstinacy was so inexcusable that he found a few friends. 
His penitence was so deep that few persons interfered in his 

favor. He is a much better writer than a reader. 
He was gifted both in music and poetry ; by that his thoughts 

came glowing from the heart, and in this he wafted them 

to Heaven. He was idle, and by these means suffered. 
He was industrious and honest, and by this means prospered. 
I bought eight load of wood four foot long. 
I sold a superior yoke of cattle because they were not well 

matched. 
It is more easier to build two chimneys than maintain one. 
Joseph Cellers was made an Notary Public. 
John Herron and I are the most intimatest friends. 
Mr. Ells Wilkin, Esq., did me most inestimablest favor. 
Neither of my brothers have returned. 
Neither of us are satisfied with the results. 
Of all the other nations, Kussia is the most extensive. 
Pitt was more eloquent than any English orator. 
Keligion elevates man, irreligion degrades him ; that bends the 

mind to earth, this raises it to Heaven. 
So great a fault called for little severity. 
Sing the two first and the three last verses. 
This weather makes you look warmly. 



188 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

The President is the chiefest man of our nation. 

The Bible is more valuable than any book. 

This here slate is his, and that there is mine. 

They returned safely from the expedition. 

They dug the well deeply. 

The most humble men often rise to the chiefest places. 

The most Highest has created us for his glory. 

The party, encountered the most total loss. 

These kind of persons are very tedious. 

Those sort of men should be avoided. 

Virtue confers the supremest dignity on man. 

"We despise not the doer but deed. 

Which of those two cords is the strongest. 

You cannot be engaged in a more nobler employment. 



OF ADVERBS. 

In using Adverbs, the following and similar errors 
should be avoided : 

1. Always avoid the use of Adjectives for Adverbs ; 
as, He reads distinct (distinctly) ; She sings siveet 
(sweetly), etc. 

2. Avoid the improper use of the Adverb how ; as, 
He said how he was sick, etc. 

3. Avoid the use of no for not ; as, It is uncertain 
whether they will succeed or no (not) — no never quali- 
fies a verb. 

4. Avoid the improper use of ivhere (in which 
place) ; as, Those were circumstances where he could 
not decide (in which). 

5. Avoid the improper use of never for ever; as, 



FALSE-SYNTAXIS AND SOLECISMS. 189 

Though one is never so rich, happiness is not thereby 
secured (ever). 

6. Avoid the use of two negatives, unless intending to 
affirm ; as, Nor will I not go (nor will I go), etc. 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION, ETC. 

Benjamin speaks fluent, reads excellent, and thinks coherent. 

Bring the pen hither to me. 

Do you not know nothing about it? 

Do not let no one disturb my repose. 

Few could act nobler than he did. He behaved himself sub- 
missive, and was exceeding careful not to give offence. 

From hence we draw this conclusion. 

From whence comest thou? 

Go quick to school; enter the room slow and light. 

He went to Columbus, and from thence to Pittsburgh. 

He will go thither at your request. 

He showed how he had seen an angel in his house. 

He could enforce the truth no stronger. 

He came agreeable to his promise, and conducted himself suit- 
able. He addressed to them exhortation suitably to their 
circumstances. He is like to be a useful member of society. 

He reads proper, writes very neat, and composes accurate. 

He reasons very clear and interestingly. 

He says express that he was acquainted with all the circum- 
stances. He said how he had been deceived. 

He spoke very decided and strong, and even vehement. 

He should not nor does not confine his opinions to narrow 
limits. 

He was extreme, extravagant, and his property is now near 
exhausted. 

He wrote a letter where he freely expressed his sentiments. 

His follies reduced him to a situation where he had much to 
fear and nothing to hope. 



190 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

I care not whether this be true or no. 

It is doubtful whether or no the object can be accomplished. 

I cannot comply neither at present nor at any other time. 

I have received no information on the subject, neither from 
him nor from no other person. 

If opportunities are never so favorable, they are useless with- 
out a proper improvement. 

In public we should speak slow, deliberate and distinct. 

I cannot say whether the man will go or no. 

I do not wish to present no such argument. 

It was told me how that the Jews laid wait for the man. 

I cannot by no means justify the act. 

Listen not to the allurement of temptation, though its voice be 
never so eloquent. Mary nor her mother were not present. 

Neither wealth nor so much good can satisfy an immortal soul. 

Precept nor discipline is not so forcible as example. 

She ran in, and told how Peter stood before the gate. 

That letter was written neat and folded nice. 

The work was easy accomplished, because it was taken up with 
spirit. The children have behaved very good. 

The trees looks beautiful as spring advances. 

We are exceeding sorry to learn that he has become so extreme 
negligent 

OF PKEPOSITIONS. 

In using Prepositions avoid the following and similar 

errors : 

1. Avoid using inappropriate Prepositions ; as, Ben- 
jamin was to Washington (at Washington) ; He was to 
sea (at sea) ; John went at sea (to sea) ; Oliver is dif- 
ferent to Charles (from Charles), etc. 

2. With a Preposition, avoid using the nominative 
who, instead of the objective whom; as, By who was 



FALSE -SYNT AXIS AND SOLECISMS. 191 

it made (By whom, etc.) ; For ivho did you go (For 
whom, etc.) ; To who did she send (To whom), etc. 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION, ETC. 

A million died of the pestilence. Benjamin lives to home. 

Between you and I there can be no concealment. 

Civility finds its way among every kind of persons. 

Every man must render an account to himself. 

He is known under the name of Anonymous. 

His conduct was approved of by friends and enemies. 

His taste of painting led him to pusue it. He is ambitious for 
distinction and desirous for fame. He is more excellent 
into character. It is not I who he is displeased with. 

It was not I who he spoke to. 

I have no occasion of his services. 

My uncle lives at Main street, No. 15, to "Washington. 

They returned of theirselves. 

There was no water, and he died for thirst. 

The remark is not founded on truth. 

The Indians have been reduced to the power of the Americans. 

The English government submitted by the desire of the Amer- 
icans. The city is to the north side of the river. 

Those who have had a taste for the evils in vice will no more 
relish its pleasures. 

The vessel arrived safe to the harbor, and was soon lying in 
the wharf. 

Though we expected our friend, we were disappointed in the 
pleasure. The land consists in plains and valleys. 

These things are consistent to his promise. 

Who did you refer to? 

Who did he receive his information from ? 

What concord can exist between those who commit crime, and 
they who abhor it? 

We can confide on none but the good. 



192 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

We have little hope for his recovery. 
"We should profit from good advice. 
We should not feel prejudice to our enemies. 
We should comply to the wishes of others as far as we can. 
We are often disappointed of things from which, "before pos- 
session, we anticipated much pleasure. 
Where does he live at ? "W here has he gone to ? 
Who did you receive instruction from ? 



OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

In using Conjunctions, avoid the following and simi- 
lar improprieties : 

1. Avoid the improper omission of Conjunctions ; 
as, I desire he may go (desire that he, etc.) ; Man who 
lives an hour, still never dies (lives but an hour, etc.) ; 
The earth, the heavens will be dissolved (The earth and 
the heaven, etc.), etc. 

2. Avoid an improper use of corresponding con- 
junctions ; as, I will either send it, or either bring it 
myself; Either thou nor yet I can comprehend it 
(Neither thou nor I, etc.) ; Neither James or Charles 
will go home, etc. 

3. Avoid the improper use of any other Conjunction 
for that ; as, I doubt not but he may come (that he 
may come) ; I fear lest he has not arrived (that he 
has not arrived) ; I doubt not but that he is honest, etc. 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION, ETC. 

Either Mary her mother will remain. 

He gained nothing further but to be commended. 

He has too much prudence than to he deceived. 



FALSE-SYNTAXIS AND SOLECISMS. 193 

He is so self-denying to decline what others need more than he. 

He was taller, but not so large as his brother. 

He was not so large, but taller than his brother. 

His duties are so arduous as that he needs assistance. 

His last work is as interesting and more able than any former 

one. His last work was more able, but not so interesting 

as his former ones. 
He was heard to. declare he was for the measure. 
He has little more of the scholar besides the name. 
I am not certain if he be the man I saw or not. 
Italy desires the same blessings as France has obtained. 
It is certainly true we often judge erroneously. 
It is useless to debate the question if we shall resist or submit. 
It was some time before he decided if he should go or stay. 
I very much desire you should return immediately. 
Men often think they are unable to resist temptation. 
Most ancient nations seem to have had no other employment 

but war. Neither Mary or Otho could be persuaded to go. 
Neither refuse or neglect to do right in all things. 
No danger is so slight, but it should be guarde*d against. 
No pleasure is so innocent but may be a source of danger. 
One of them is equally blamable as the other. 
Such men that deceive once, should never be trusted a second 

time. This is none other but the house of God. 
There was something so interesting in him as effected me at 

once. The younger Pitt was more learned, but not so 

brilliant as his father. 
There is no condition so secure as cannot admit of change. 
They were much afraid lest he would betray them. 
The proposition was no sooner made but he excepted it. 
"We have abundant evidence he is not to be trusted. 
We often say we care not for danger, but sometimes deceive 

ourselves. We doubt not but he will succeed. 
We have reason to fear lest we may mistake our duty. 
We cannot deny but that he has acted honorably. 



194 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 



OF PARTICIPLES. 

In employing Participles avoid improprieties as given 
in the following examples : 

1. Avoid the improper use of the Perfect participle 
for the past tense of an irregular verb in the indica- 
tive ; as, I seen him (I saw him) ; She done it herself 
(She did it) ; They come home yesterday (came home, 
etc.) ; We begun last week, etc. 

2. In a compound tense formed by associating a verb 
and participle, avoid using the Preterit or Past tense 
for the perfect participle ; as, I have saw her (have 
seen) ; He had drove it before (had driven) ; She will 
have went (will have gone) ; We have arose to defend 
our institution, etc. 

3. Avoid the improper omission or use of the or of 
alone with a Partible ; as, In making of books — In 
the making books ; (In the making of books — In ma- 
king books ;) With teaching of men, etc. 

exercises for correction, etc. 

All men have forsook him. 

By the observing truth, we will secure confidence. 

By observing of truth, we shall command esteem. 

Each has nobly bore his part of the burden. 

He would have went, had it been possible. 

Hugh writ to his friend after he had wrote to him. 

He has began his career well for one of his age. 

He had mistook his true interest. 

He has ran the risk of been detected. 



FALLACIES — EXERCISES. 1 95 

He would have spoken fluently, if he had not forgot the last 

part of his speech. 
Had not the misfortune befel my cousin, he would have went 

home long ago. 
He writes as the best authors would have wrote, had they 

writ on the same subject. 
It was proven that he had stole the money. 
I was chose for my superior judgment. 
John had wrote for the "Dollar "Weekly Times." 
Joseph done me no harm, for I had wrote my letter before he 

come home. Many persons have came to this country. 
Poverty turns our attention too much upon the supplying our 

wants ; riches upon the enjoying luxuries. 
Since the work is began, it must be prosecuted. 
The changing times and seasons, the removing and setting up 

kings, belong to Providence alone. 
The sun had already arose, when I began my journey. 
The French language is spoke in every State in Europe. 
The lady has wrote pretty poetry. 

The greater part of Christian professors have forsook secta- 
rian bigotry. 



FALLACIES PROMISCUOUSLY ARRANGED. 

A country around Columbus are beautiful. 

Adelia acted very independent on the occasion. 

A varieties of pleasing objects charms the eye. 

A judicious arrangements of studies facilitates improvement. 

Affluence might give us respect in the eyes of the vulgar, but 

will not recommend us to the wise and good. 
Amanda and Charles is older than me. 
All whosoever came were made welcome. 
A great majority of our authors is defective in manner. 



196 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

An invitation were sent to me and John. 

A person s success in life depends on their exertions : if they 
shall aim at nothing, they shall certainly achieve nothing. 

A more worthier man you cannot find. 

An acute, ready and attentive memory have rendered him 
remarkahle. 

A worse evil on any people were never heard of. 

A more worthier man I could not have founded. 

A man had four sons, and he divided his property between 
them. Asa his heart was perfect. 

Adam Clark his Look. Amanda Smith her album. 

Abel and Cain's sacriiicc were not the same. 

All men have talents committed to their charges. 

A father's and mother's loves to their children are very tender. 

Ask John if he know when the congregation meet. 

And live as God designed me to. 

An army present all the bad passions of the human heart. 

A man being poor does not make him miserable. 

A prisoner is not accounted guilty till he are convicted. 

As soon as he shall return we will recommence our studies. 

A public dinner are given to the inhabitants of roast beef and 
plum pudding. 

A man's being rich, or his being poor, do not affect his charac- 
ter for integrity. 

A conceited fool is more abominable than all fools. 

A constant display of the graces are fatiguing to a sober mind. 

Avoid lightness and frivolity ; it is allied to folly. 

A great number of women was present. 

A good end does not warrant using of bad means. 

A good end does not warrant the using bad means. 

Anger and impatience is always unreasonable. 

Art thou the man who hast dared to insult me? 

All who were present were pleased with the entertainment. 

Among every class of people self-interest prevails. 

A truth is virtue to which we should pay little regard. 



FALLACIES — EXERCISES. 1 9 1 

A soul inspired with the love of truth will keep all his powers 

attentive to the pursuit of it. 
A great mass of rocks thrown together by the hand of nature 
with wildness and confusion strike the mind with more 
grandeur than if they were adjusted to one another with 
the accuratest symmetry. 

A drove of forty heads of cattle passed along. 

As two are to four, so six are to twelve. 

A man's manners frequently influences his fortune. 

All the world is spectators of your conduct. 

A lampoon or satire do not carry in them robbery or murders. 

An army presents a painful sight to a feeling mind. 

An attempt was being made in the legislator. 

A report is now being prepared. Are not my days a few ? 

A stranger to the poem would not easily discover that this 
was verse. 

Beauty and innocence should be never separated. 

By the obtaining wisdom you will command respect. 

By obtaining of wisdom you will command respect. 

Because of provoking his sons and daughters, the Lord ab- 
horred them. Be shure to write yourself and tell her to. 

Be so kind as to tell me whether he will do it or no. 

Both cold and heat have its extremes. 

Books, not pleasure, occcupies his mind. 

Be more anxious to acquire knowledge than to show it. 

Be more anxious about acquiring knowledge than to show it. 

Between he and I there is some disparity of years, but none 
between he and she. 

Be wise and good that you may be happy. 

By these attainments are the master honored, and the scholar 
encouraged. 

By exercising of our memories, they are improved. 

Be so good as to lend me your grammar. 

Calumny and detraction are sparks which, if you do not blow, 
they will go out of themselves. 
*9 



198 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Coleridge the poet and philosopher have many admirers. 

Come in the house. Can you tell whom that man is ? 

Congress consists of a Senate and House of Representative. 

Circumstances alters cases. Come, let you and me go. 

Changed for a shape, it cannot be. 

Can these persons consent to a proposal, and will consent to it? 

Common sense, as well as piety, tell us these are proper. 

Covet earnestly for the best gifts. 

Do you not think he writes good? 

Do you know who you are talking to ? 

Discontent and sorrow manifest itself in the countenance. 

Did he not tell thee his fault, and entreated you to forgive him. 

Does he not read and writes well ? Did he run well ? 

Do you speak so to me, I who have so often befriended you? 

David and Solomon's reign were prosperous. 

Each day and each hour brings their changes. 

Every church and sect have opinions peculiar to themselves. 

Everything whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, 
do ye even so to them. 

Every one should consider their own frailties. 

Every plant and every flower proclaims their Maker's praise. 

Extremes are not in its nature favorable to happiness. 

Earth existed at first in the state of chaos. 

Either he or I are willing to go. 

Every change is not a change to the better. 

Enjoying health and to live in peace are great blessings. 

Earth hath her solitudes, and so has life. 

Every leaf, twig, every drop of water teem with life. 

Every one of those pleasures that are pursued to excess, con- 
vert themselves into poison. 

Extravagance and folly may reduce you to a situation where 
you will have much to fear and little to hope. 

Either he or I are willing to go. 

Expectation and reality makes up the sum total of life. 

Favor is not always bestowed to the most deserving. 



FALLACIES — EXERCISES. 199 

For conscience's sake. For right eousn ess' s sake. 

From the little conversation I had with him, he appeared to 

have been a man of learning. 
False accusations cannot diminish from his real merit. 
Forty head of cattle was sold in an hour. 
For you have but mistook me all the while. 
God has blessed us ; yes, even we, who have been so ungrateful. 
God upholding all things is an evidence of his power. 
Go and be reconciled with thy brother. 
Gravitation was a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton. 
Great desires are difficult to be gratified. 
Gold is being found in small quantities at Pike's Peak. 
Goods are now being sold off at first cost. 
Go, flee thee away into the land of Judea. 
Had I known the character of the lecture, I would not have 

went. 
Having began the work, he was not easily discouraged. 
He has little more of the great man besides the title. 
He needs no spectacles that cannot see, nor boots that cannot 

walk. He was offered a pardon. 
He was not returned an hour ago. He has began the work. 
He came along with David and I. 
He rode to town and drove twelve cows on horseback. 
He gave the book to some one, I know not who. 
He has been to home for some days. 

He who committed the offence thou shouldst correct, not I. 
He ingratiates with some by traducing others. 
His, servants ye are, to whom ye obey. 
He is the man whom you said it was. 
He, and not they, are mistaken. Horse is a noble animal. 
His time, as well as his money and his health, was lost in the 

undertaking. He and not we, are to blame. 
His father set him up as a merchant, who was what he desired 

to be. He bid me go home. 
He is far from being so perfect as he thinks he is. 



200 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

He whoever steals my purse steals trash. 

He was eager of recommending him to his fellow citizens. 

He was averse to the nation involving itself in war. 

He cared for his fathers and also for his mother's interests. 

He will maintain his cause though he loses his estate. 

He was heard say it by everybody. He has broke his cup. 

He being a great man did not make him a happy man. 

He has and will assist all who may deserve aid. 

He spends part of his time in studying of the classics. 

He said that truth was immutable. 

He should study diligently, that he might become learned. 

He has been formerly very disorderly. 

He has done it before yesterday. He tells lies long enough. 

He spoke agreeable to the rules of rhetoric. 

He that was dead sat up and began to speak. 

He was told his danger, that he might shun it. 

He has little more of the great man besides the name. 

He was afraid he would have died. He spoke eloquent. 

He departed from thence into a desert place. 

His expressions sounded harshly. 

He only reads English, not French. 

Hence naturally arise indifference or aversion between the 
parties. He chiefly spoke of virtue, not vice. 

He read the book only, but did not keep it. 

He drew up a petition, where he represented his own merit. 

He only read one book, not two. He will never be taller. 

He went west last year, since when I have not seen him. 

Having not known or having not considered the measures pro- 
posed, he failed of success. 

He know'd it was his duty, and he ought, therefore, to do it. 

How distinguished for talents he is, and how useful might be. 

He reads and writeth well. He reads and does write well. 

He reads and is writing well. 

He can neither read nor can write. 

He would not do it himself nor let me do it. 



FALLACIES — EXERCISES. 201 

He was angry as he could not speak. 

He could command his temper, though would not. 

He is holder but not so wise as his companion. 

He takes no care nor no interest in the matter. 

He is temperate, he is disinterested, he is benevolent. 

His honor, interest, religion, were all embarked in this under- 
taking. 

He may be said to have saved the life of a citizen, and, conse- 
quently, entitled to the reward. 

His conduct is not scandalous, and that is the best that can 
be said of it. He writes tolerable well. 

His speech is the most perfect specimen I ever saw. 

Him and me are of the same age. 

He employed another friend of his father to assert his claim. 

He whoever said so was mistaken. 

He promised long ago that he had attended to that matter. 

He never has and he never will do so well. 

He puts down the mighty and exalteth the humble. 

He was no sooner aware of his danger, but he avoided it. 

He only got the money for a few days. 

How is the Gender and Number of the Relative known ? 

Humility neither seeks the last place, or the last word. 

I am now at school six months. 

I am purposed that I will not sin. 

I am resolved to go. I have been to Cincinnati. 

I am sure it could not have been her. I trust in him. 

I always understood it to be her, whom the}^ say since wrote 
the book. 

I always have and I always shall be of this opinion. 

I am opposed to him going on such an expedition. 

I am now engaged with that work. 

I cannot see to write no more. 

I cannot believe but you have been sick. 

I cannot see but what he is well. 

I designed to have finished the business before I returned. 



202 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Idleness and ignorance produces many vices. 

I do not deny but he has merit. 

I found him better than I expected to have found him. 

If thou wert not my superior, I would reprove you. 

If thou forget your friend, can thee expect thy friend to 

remember you ? 
If John be came why did you not tell me? 
If he was an imposter, he must have been detected. 
I find great difficulty of writing. 
If any boy or girl shall neglect her duty, they shall forfeit 

their place in the class. 
If it were them who we saw, we were mistaken, certainly. 
If I were she, I would except the offer. 
If he am but in health I am content. 

If he is but in health, it will be the cause of great thanks- 
giving. 
If he were a year older, I would send him to school. 
If he knows anything, he surely knows, that unless he gets 

better he cannot be removed. 
If it rains all night the river will be impassable. 
Ignorance is the mother of all fear as well as admiration. 
I have saw him who you wrote to ; and he would have came 

back with me, if he could. 
I have no occasion of his services. 
I have observed some satirists to use the term. 
I have saw some young persons to conduct themselves very 

discreetly. I have drank enough. 
I have been at Washington last year and seen the President 

last summer, and all his Cabinet. 
I have once or twice told the story to our friend before he 

went away. I have purchased a house and orchard. 
If you are fond of those sort of things you may have them. 
If you intend to be a teacher, who you cannot be without 

learning you must study. 



FALLACIES — EXERCISES. 203 

In his conduct was treachery, and in his words faithless pro- 
fessions. Impudence and ignorance makes him what he is. 

In the hearing of the will read, and in the examining of the 
sundry papers much time was spent. 

In the proper disposition of adverbs, the ear carefully requires 
to he consulted as well as the sense. 

In the viewing the planets, a telescope is required. 

In such circumstances, no man, no woman, no child, are safe. 

I never did repent for doing good, nor shall not now. 

I observed that love constituted the whole character of God. 

In him were not only sound judgment, but kindness of heart 
also. 

I should be obliged to him if he would gratify me in that par- 
ticular. I shall be pleased to do him a kindness. 

I seen that the kettle had been scoured with half an eye. 

I speak of John Bunyan, he who wrote the Course of Time. 

I should have said, he who wrote the Pilgrims Progress. 

Is it not him whom you said it was ? I understood it to be he. 

It has been fully shown that neither of them are correct. 

It are so clear as I needn't to not explain it. 

It will afford me pleasure to have relieved my friend. 

It is not impossible but what you are mistaken. 

It is astonishing his ignorance, notwithstanding his advant- 
ages for his education. 

It is important, in all times of trial, to have a friend to whom 
you can confide. 

It is well known that wealth does not secure happiness. 

Is it me or him who you requested to go ? 

It is an union supported by an hypothesis, merely. 

It is the duty of every one to be careful of their reputation. 

It was purposed by the President to fit out an expedition, and 
has accomplished it. 

I venerate him, I respect him, I love him on account of his 
virtues. I will send thee far from hence to the Gentiles. 

I whom are first, has the best claim. 



204 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

I who speak unto you am he. I was promised a pension. 
I wish I was at home. I was given a book of great value. 
Joseph having been sold by his brethren, was overruled for 
good. John Otstot his book. 

John's brother's wife's mother i^ si 3k. 

James, and also his brother, have undertook a glorious enter- 
prise. J )hn is older than me. 

Josephine is as tall if not taller than I am. 

Jonathan gave his friend a present which he highly valued. 

Juliet or Delia will favor us with their company. 

King James translators merely revised former translations. 

Kirstall Abby, now in ruins, appears to be an extensive build- 
ing. Keep good and throw bad away. 

Learning of anything will require of application. 

Let each esteem others better than herself. 

Let every man and every woman strive to do their best. 

Lei. him be whom he may. 

Let him that stand eth take heed lest he falls. 

Lycurgus, the Spartan law-giver, is said to be born in the 926 
year before Christ. 

Many days and even weeks pass away unimproved. 

Meekness is manifested in suffering of ills patiently. 

Molasses are thicker than water. Magnesia feels smoothly. 

Many have profited from the misfortune of others. 

Many ridiculous customs have been brought in during the 
twenty last years. 

Music, the loving of it, and the practice of it, seems to pervade 
all creation. My gravity never did no one any harm. 

Men, women, and childrens shoes for sale. 

Messrs. Randall's, Aston s & Go's: book store in Columbus, 
Ohio. My foot slipped, and I pretty near fell down. 

My mother was sick for four weeks, and is no better. 

My father and him are very intimate. 

Many a one have tried to be rich, but in vain. 



FALLACIES — EXERCISES. 205 

Many a broken ship have come to land. 

My ancestors virtue is not mine. 

Neither ability nor inclination are wanting. 

Neither George or his brother approved the plan. 

Neither riches or beauty furnish solid peace, and contentment. 

Nothing never can justify ingratitude. 

Neither James nor I has had a letter this week. 

Never were any nation so infatuated. 

Neither wealth nor honor confers happiness on there votaries. 

Neither the man nor boy were to blame. 

Neither the scholars nor the teachers was present. 

Neither the intellect nor the heart are capable of being driven. 

No man is so good as does not possess some fault. 

No oppressor, no tyrant triumph there. 

Not one in fifty of those who call themselves Deists, under- 
stand the nature of the religion which they reject. 

No person could promise stronger, or seem to act nobler than 
him. No wife, no mother, no child, soothe his cares. 

Not one of the many there were satisfied with the explanation. 

Oh that the winter was gone. 

One man's loss is often another man's gain. 

One or another must relinquish their claim. 

One pair was spoiled ; five pair was in good condition. 

One should not think too highly of themselves. 

One man may do a kindness to another, though he is his ene- 
my. Open the door widely, and go in quiet. 

One man and one boy is sufficient. 

Our welfare and security consists in unity. 

Our happiness or misery depend much on our conduct. 

Our friends brought two loads to market, and were sold at a 
good price. On eagles wings. 

Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. 

Piety toward God, as well as sobriety and virtue, are neces- 
sary to happiness. Pay to me what you owe to me. 

Please call at Fuller the druggist and bookseller's. 
10 



206 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Please give that book to my sister Charlotte, she who stands 

by the door. 
Quadrates is of different sizes. Qaintly he stealed a kiss. 
Quoth I, qu< <th he, and the nominative always follow the verb. 
Reason was given to a man to control his passions. 
Eeprove not a scorner lest he hates thee. 
See that thou dost it not. 

Several persons were entered into a conspiracy. 
She is the person who I understood it to be. 
She that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. 
She who we met at the springs last summer. 
She insists on in it that she is right. 
Some was trod under foot. 
She being rich did not make her happy. 
She cannot do no more. Some one took my pen. 
She did that work good. She needs not to trouble herself. 
She is a remarkable pretty girl. 

Sincerity is as valuable and even more so than knowledge. 
Six times three are eighteen. 
Some one has long ago told the same story. 
Some people are difficult to please. 
Some one saw them to pass the house. 
Such conduct cannot be reconciled to your profession. 
Such are the men whom we might suppose know better. 
Such men that act treacherously had ought to be avoided. 
Such will even be the effect of youth associating with vicious 

companions. Stephens party were entirely broke up. 
Stanton's and Company's office was on fire above. 
Synod have adjourned. 

Take care who you admit into your friendship. 
Temperance and exercise preserves health. 
They that honor me will I honor, and them that despise me 

shall be lightly esteemed. 
That able scholar and critic have died. 
That is the vice whom I hate. 



FALLACIES — EXERCISES. 207 

That is a small matter "between you and I. 

That knife is 3-our knife, but I thought it was my knife. 

That is the man and the horse which we met before. 

That is a ring of my mother. 

That class of persons are never free from coarseness. 

That writer has given us an account of the manner in which 
Christianity has formerly been propagated among the 
heathens. 

The assemblys held their meetings in the evening. - 

The girls' school was better conducted formerly than the boy's. 

The garments were well wore, and were torn in many places. 

The author dreads the critic, the miser dreads the thief, the 
criminal dreads the judge, the horse dreads the whip, and 
the lamb dreads the wolf — all after their hind. 

The cares of this world, they often choke the growth of 
virtue. The boat moves rapid. 

The boys was all let to go at once. 

The committee were divided in its opinion. 

The court in their wisdom decided otherwise. 

The fortress was being built. 

The fields look freshly and gayly since the rain. 

There have arose in modern times many unwise reforms. 

The door is painted greenly. 

The doctor said that fever always produces thirst. 

The enemies who we have most to fear, are those of our own 
hearts. The fortress was being built. 

The first and second verses are better than the third and fourth. 

The following verses were written by a young man who has 
long lain in the grave for his own amusement. 

The garden wall is five rod long ; I measured it with a ten 
foot pole. 

The gentleman has arrived, him whom I mentioned before. 

The gentleman's and lady's healths are improving. 

The lady and lap-dog which we saw at the window have dis- 
appeared. 



208 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

The duty was easier performed than they had anticipated. 
The love of virtue, and devotion to pleasure, is opposed to 

each other. 
That is the hoy whom we think deserves the prize. 
The large numher of foreigners was present. 
The man and the things which he has studied have not im- 
proved his morals. 
Them hooks was sold for a lesser price than they cost. 
The magnificent church now "being erected in Third street, 

Columbus. Them are excellent. 
The mechanism of clocks and watches were totally unknown. 
The man was digging a well with a Koman nose. 
The miser is wretched ; the honest pauper is happy than him. 
The news "by the last arrival is hetter than were expected. 
Them that seek wisdom will find it. 
The one is equally deserving as the other. 
The public are informed that its interests are secured. 
The Past Tense. of these Verbs are very indefinite with respect 

to time. 
The people of the United States enjoys a free constitution and 

laws. 
The polite, accomplished libertine, is but miserable amidst all 

his pleasures : the rude inhabitant of Lapland is happier 

than him. 
The people of this country possess a healthy climate and soil. 
The prisoner's, if I may say so, conduct was shameful. 
The property of my friend, I mean his books and furniture, 

were wholly consumed. 
The rumor against me have not spread so universally as they 

supposed. The Representatives House is now in session. 
There will be enough to do next week, if the weather is good. 
The people rejoices in that which should cause sorrow. 
The quarrels of lovers is a renewal of love. 
The spot where this new and strange tragedy was being acted. 
There are several faults which I intended to have enumerate. 



FALLACIES — EXERCISES. 209 

These elective-affinity people seemed to have no other element 
but quarrel. These kind of books can hardly be got. 

The same laws and the same constitution which belongs to one 
citizen of the United States belongs to all. 

The truth need not always be told. 

The whole depended on its being them. 

The winter has not been as severe as we expected to have been. 

They live in Yellow Springs. They don't ought to do it. 

There are principles in man, which ever have, and ever will, 
incline him to offend. 

They seemed to be dressed alike. 

They admired the pedlar's, as he seemed, beautiful goods. 

They were bid come into the house. 

They did not fail to enlarge theirselves on the subject. 

They that honor me, them will I honor. 

The young and old man seem to be on good terms. 

Though great has been his disobedience and his folly, yet if he 
sincerely acknowledges his misconduct, he shall be for- 
given. Time passes swift, though it appears to move slow. 

Time and tide waits for no man. 

They presented a petition, where this subject was included. 

The goods were all delivered at Clark's the merchant's. 

This is the friend which I love. 

They desired to ingratiate with those who it was dishonora- 
ble to favor. This remark is founded with truth. 

This book, with others of a similar character, were his constant 
study. This was equal to rejecting of the proposal. 

This was equal to a rejecting the proposal. 

This is one of the duties which requires great circumspection. 

This mode of expression has been formerly in use before. 

Those two authors have each of them their merit. 

Therein consists the force and use and nature of language. 

Three shot was fired without effect. 

The time of my friend entering on business soon arrived. 

To be ignorant of such things are now inexcusable. 



210 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

To do good to them that hate us, and, on no occasion, to seek 

revenge, is the duty of a Christian. 
To do good unto others are the duty of all. 
To study mathematics, require maturity of mind. 
To who will you give that nowret. 

Though the scene was affecting, he showed a little emotion. 
To accomplish these ends, savages resort to cunning. 
To he or not to he ? that is the question. 
Two hoys is equal to one man. Two and two makes four. 
Two dozen is as many as you can take. 
Two or more sentences united together, is called a compound 

sentence. Two is "better than one. 
Virtue and vice differ widely with each other. Virtue's reward. 
"Wanted a young man to take care of some horses of a religious 

turn of mind. 
"Was gold more ahundant, it would he of less value. 
We could not he sure of its "being him. 
We should respect those persons, hecause they continued long 

attached to us. 
We always should prefer our duties to our pleasures. 
We cannot doubt hut what he is well. 
We have done no more than it was our duty to have done. 
We hoped to have heard from you. 

We are apprehensive lest some accident had happened him. 
We must resist pleasure and endure pain, when either of them 

interfere with duty. 
Wheat is "being sold at a dollar a "bushel, and oats is in demand. 
"When we neglect duty, evil is at hand continually. 
Whom they had sat at defiance. 

What is the reason of him having neglected this husiness ? 
Which dictionary do you prefer, Walker or Wehster ? 
Whether he will he learned or no, depends on his application. 
Wisdom, and not wealth, procure esteem. 
"While all our youth prefers her to the rest. 
Your friend is a man of the most "brilliant talents. 



FALLACIES. 211 

A LIST OF IMPROPER PHRASES. 

A chunk of bread A piece of bread. 

A clever house A good house. 

Any manner of means Any means. 

Ahorse colt or mare colt A colt — a filly. 

A lengthy sermon, etc A long sermon, etc. 

A total destitution of capacity A total want of capacity. 

A committee was raised was formed or appointed. 

A rugged child A robust or healthy child. 

Be spry — he is a springy man Be quick — an active man. 

Common apples, cider, etc Excellent apples, cider, etc. 

Do you love»study ? I guess I do Yes ; very much. 

Equally as well, equally as good Equally well, or just as well, etc. 

Firstly, secondly, thirdly, etc First, secondly, etc. 

He conducts well himself well or respectably. 

He is a decent scholar He is apretty good scholar. 

He is a very likely man a very good looking man. 

He is an ugly fellow a fellow of bad disposition. 

He is a considerable of a scholar a pretty good scholar. 

He is rather poorly rather indisposed. 

He is some better than he was somewhat better. 

He shows much temper — shows much warmth of temper. 

He still pled not guilty — pleaded not guilty. 

He was walking back and forth backward and forward. 

He went up on to the roof — went up to the roof. 

He will once in a while get drunk.... — will sometimes get drunk. 

Her situation is distressing to a de- Her situation is extremely distress- 

gree ing. 

His farm is convenient to mine His farm is contiguous to mine. 

— arguments were based on this fact were founded on this fact. 

— discourse was approbated — discourse was approved. 

How do your folks do ? How is your family. 

I allow upon going I inteud to go. 

I ain't, you ain't, he ain't, etc I am or be not, you be not, he is not. 

I calculate to leave soon - intend to leave socfh. 

I expect they be -believe they are. 

I expect he did do it - think he has done it, or he did it. 

I have had a spell of sickness - have been.sick for some time. 

I reckon he will - suppose he will. 

I sat out on my journey. - set out on my journey. 

I seen him, I see him yesterday - saw him yesterday. 

I should admire to go to see - would like to go and see. 

I think it will eventuate in this it will end or terminate in this. 



212 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

I was mad at him I was angry with him. 

I was raised in Virginia brought up in Virginia. 

I would not belittle myself - would not degrade myself. 

In good case orkelter In good condition or order. 

Mighty cold — mighty fine Very cold — very fine. 

Mr. A B ,Esq A B ,Esq. 

Not proven Not proved. 

Over the signature Under the signature. 

Predicated on former occasions Founded on former occasions. 

Serious people Keligioas people. 

Such doctrine revolt us We revolt at such doctrine . 

Talents of the highest grade Talents of the highest order. 

The alone God. The alone motive . The one God. The only motive. 

— creatures must be sheltered beasts must be stabled. 

— market is full of sauce is full of vegetables. 

— money was ordered paid was ordered to be paid. 

— price will raise soon will rise soon. 

— United States, or either of them. or any of them. 

— work progresses slowly advances slowly. 

They are not very plenty are not very plentiful. 

Things are in a bad fix are in a bad condition. 

To sell at auction To sell by auction. 

What do folks think of it ? What do the people think of ? 

What had they ought to be ? What should that be ? 

Where do you keep ? — put up ? At what house do you stay ? 

Will you go by and dine with me?... Will you go by my house and dine? 

Will you fix these things forme? — put these things in order for me? 

Will you loan me a few dollars ? — lend me a few dollars. 

You have too much sauce You have too much impudence. 



CONTRACTIONS AND IMPROPRIETIES. 

In some localities of our country, the following abuses 
of our language prevail : 

Incorrect. Proper. Incorrect. Proper. 

Aint are not. Hizzent has not. 

Doozzent does not. Izzent is not. 

Haint have not. Maint may not. 



FALLACIES — IMPROPER PHRASES. 



213 



Incorrect. Proper. 

Mussent must not. 

Tizzent it is not. 

Waunt was not. 

Wazzent was not. 



Incorrect. Proper. 

"Wer'nt were not. 

Whool who will. 

Wooden t would not. 

Wont will not. 



Common in the East and portions of the West : 



Akst or axt askt. 

Ak'-tew-el act-u-al. 

An'-jel ane'-jel. 

Bin been. 

Dan'-jur dane'-jur. 

Dooze duz. 

Ed'-e w-kate. . . . ed'y u— kate. 

Fath'-er fV-ther. 

Eor'-tun fort'-yun. 

For'-tew-nate. fort'-yu-nate, 



Brenth bredth. 

Cheer chair. 

For by to spare. 

Furnentz opposite. 

Lenth length. 

"Wat what. 



Hiz-zn hiz. 

Hull hole. 

Hum home. 

Na'-tur nat'-yur. 

Nat-ur-el nat'-y u-ral. 

Dump unload. 

Foxy reddish. 

Heft weight. 

Helve handle. 

Supie spry or supple. 

WEST. 

Ort ought. 

Spook ghost. 

Strent h str en gth. 

We bit small piece. 

Wisht wish. 

Wurnt once. 



SOUTH. 



Bar bare. 

Ca-hoot partnership. 

Gwine , go-ing 

Hop'd helpt. 

Marbl moove off. 

Mout mite (might). 



Shet or shut... rid. 

Thar thare. 

Tote or fotch...kar-re, fetsh or 

bring. 
Whar hware. 



PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of using points or stops in 
writing to divide composition into sentences, denoting 
the proper pauses, to assist the understanding in re- 
ceiving ideas, intended to be conveyed by the writer. 

The principal stops or points are as follows : 

The Comma (,) representing the shortest pause ; The 
Semicolon (;) requiring a pause double that of a Com- 
ma ; The Colon (:) denoting a pause double the length 
of the Semicolon ; The Period (.) a full stop double 
the length of a Colon. 

The duration or length of the pauses may be regu- 
lated by the taste and ability of the reader, according 
to the time and manner of pronunciation, etc. 

COMMA. 

The Comma is used to denote the shortest pause, and 
commonly separates the elements of a simple or com- 
plex sentence ; as, The most innocent pleasures are the 
sweetest, the most sensible, the most affecting, and the 
most lasting. 

A knowledge of the use of the Comma may be 
learned from the following prescribed examples and 
observations : 

1. A short simple sentence is not divided by a 
Comma; as, The fear of the Lord is the beginning of 
Wisdom. No part of life is exempt from troubles. 



PUNCTUATION. 215 

Obs. — When a simple sentence is long, and the nominative 
accompanied with an adjunctive phrase, a comma must be in- 
serted before the predicate ; as, The intermixture of evil in 
human society, serves to exercise the suffering graces and vir- 
tues of the good. Our nations honor of the present day, will 
induce us to cultivate an American language. 

2. The simple members or clauses of a compound 
sentence are separated by commas ; as, Crafty men 
contemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise 
men use them. 

Obs. — When members are closely connected, the comma 
is unnecessary ; as, Eevelation tells us how we may obtain 
happiness. 

3. When the connection of the different parts of 
a simple sentence, is interrupted by an adjunctive 
phrase, a comma may be introduced before and after the 
phrase ; as, I remember, with gratitude, his goodnes to 
me. They are, therefore, not much respected. 

Obs. — When the adjunctive phrase is of slight importance, 
the comma had better be omitted ; as, Coquetry is undoubt- 
edly baneful. 

4. Two words of the same part of speech, whether 
nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, or parti iples, con- 
nected by a conjunction, do not admit of a comma be- 
tween them ; as, The day and night are equal. The 
man of order catches and arrests the hours as they fly. 
Lafayette was a brave and generous man. We live 
either virtuously or viciously. By encouraging and 
animating him, he became brave and eminent. 



216 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Obs. — When the conjunction is not expressed, a comma is 
inserted between the words; as, He is & plain, honest Ameri- 
can. Reason, passion answers one great end; We are fear- 
fully, wonderfully framed, etc. 

5. Three or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc., 
following in the same sentence require a comma; 
as, Poetry, music, and painting, are fine arts. Wash- 
ington was a brave, wise, and prudent general. The 
feeling, hearing, sight, smell, and taste, are the five 
natural senses, etc. 

Obs. — When the words follow each in pairs, there must 
be a comma between each pair; as, Anarchy and confusion, 
poverty and distress, desolation and ruin, are the consequences 
of civil war. 

6. The words used in a direct address, the case abso- 
lute, a short expression in the manner of a quotation, 
and the infinitive mode absolute, when it is not used as 
a nominative case, should be separated from the rest of 
the sentence by commas ; as, My son, hear the coun- 
sels of thy father. I remain, Sir, your obedient ser- 
vant. The time of youth, being precious, we should 
devote it to the purposes of improvement. Johnston 
calls stealing, the vice of slaves. To enjoy present 
pleasure, he sacrificed future ease and reputation, etc. 

t: A single name in apposition is not separated by a 
comma ; as, The Prophet Isaiah. The Apostle James. 
The President Buchanan, etc. 

Obs. — But when such a phrase is accompanied with an 
adjunctive clause, the adjunct should have a comma before 



PUNCTUATION. 217 

and after it; as, Paul, the Apostle of the Gentiles, was emi- 
nent for his knowledge and zeal. Buchanan, the President of 
the United States, is a Democrat in political measures. 

8. Simple elements connected by comparatives, and 
phrases placed in apposition to, or in contrast with 
each other, are separated by commas; thus, "As the 
heart panteth after the water brooks, so doth my soul 
after Thee." They are sometimes in opposition to, and 
sometimes in union with the views of each other. 
Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull. 

Obs. — 1. When one word is an object, following the last 
proposition of a sentence, a comma must not be inserted before 
it; as, She was much attached to, and concerned for James. 

2. When the elements of comparative sentences are short, 
the comma is admitted; as, How much better is wisdom than 
gold, etc. 

9. All adjuncts or explanatory phrases, either at the 
beginning, middle, or end of a simple sentence, are sep- 
arated by commas ; as, " With gratitude, I remember 
his goodness to me." I remember, with gratitude, his 
goodness to me. Vices, like shadows, toward the eve- 
ning of life, grow great and monstrous. I saw the 
captain, as he is called, etc. 

Obs. — A comma must be inserted between the two parts 
of a sentence, which has its natural order inverted ; as, With 
God, nothing is impossible — that is, Nothing is impossible 
with God. 

10. A comma must be inserted before the relative, 
when the clause following it is used to explain the ante- 



218 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

cedent clause ; as, He, ivho disregards the good opin- 
ions of mankind, is totally desperate ; or, He is totally 
desperate, who disregards the good opinion of man- 
kind, etc. 

Obs. — When the relative is so closely connected with its 
antecedent, that it cannot be transposed, a comma must not 
be inserted before it ; as, Self-denial is the sacrifice which vir- 
tue must make. I have perused the book which you lent me. 

11. When any tense of the verb BE is followed by 
the infinitive mode of a verb, which, by transposition, 
might be made the nominative case to it, the former is 
generally separated from the latter verb by a comma ; 
as, The best preservative of health IS, to be temperate 
in all our gratifications. To be temperate in all our 
gratifications, is the best preservative of health, etc. 

12. When a verb is understood, a comma must be 
inserted ; as, Reading makes a full man ; conference, a 
ready man ; and writing, an exact man. 

13. The word that, used as a conjunction, is preceded 
by a comma ; as, Be virtuous, that you may be happy. 

14. Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions, used to 
connect or introduce a new member, must be separated 
from the preceding part of the sentence by a comma ; 
as, He feared want, hence, he overvalued riches. The 
Lord hath blessed thee, since my coming. The instruc- 
tions of adversity may be wholesome, though unpleas- 
ing. The wise man seeketh wisdom, but the fool de- 
spiseth understanding. 



PUNCTUATION — THE SEMICOLON. 219 

15. The words again, besides, fact, first, formerly, 
hence, however, in, indeed, lastly, nay, now, secondly, 
so, therefore, wherefore, and all other words and 
phrases of the same kind, must, when considered of 
importance, be separated from the contex by a comma, 
according to prescription 9th, page 2 It. 

Obs. — When these foregoing words and phrases are not con- 
sidered important, and particular in short sentences, the comma 
must not he inserted. 

The foregoing examples may be found to comprehend 
enough for ordinary punctuation, yet there may be 
many cases that the writer must rely on his own judg- 
ment. Many authors in composing works for the press 
merely insert a period at the end of each sentence, 
leaving the pointing to be done by the printers, who 
acquire a uniform punctuation from constant practice. 

SEMICOLON. 

The Semicolon is used for dividing a compound sen- 
tence into two or more parts, when the clauses of the 
sentence are less connected, than those which are sepa- 
rated by the comma. 

1. When a complete proposition is contained in the 
first division of a sentence, a clause which is added 
as an inference, or to give some explanation, etc. , must 
be separated by the semicolon ; as, Be not a witness 
against thy neighbor without cause ; and deceive not 
with thy lips. The faithful pastor makes the truth 
plain to his hearers ; he awakens them ; he excites 



220 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

them to action ; he shows them their impending dan- 
ger. 

2. Several short sentences following each other, hav- 
ing a single connection in idea merely, though complete 
in themselves in other respects, they may be separated 
by the semicolon ; as, Every thing growls old ; every 
thing passes away ; every thing disappears. The epic 
poem recites the exploits of a hero ; tragedy represents 
a disastrous event ; pastoral poetry describes rural life ; 
and elegy displays the tender emotions of the heart, etc. 

COLON. 

The use of the Colon is to divide a compound sen- 
tence into two or more parts, the elements being less con- 
nected than those which are separated by a Semicolon, 
but not so independent as to require a period. 

1. When an element of a sentence is complete in 
itself, both in construction and sense, but some addi- 
tional remark or illustration following it, depending 
upon it in sense, though not in syntax, the colon may 
be used to separate them ; as, Study to acquire a habit 
of thinking : no study is more important. The fear of 
the Lord is the beginning of knowledge : but fools de- 
spise wisdom and understanding, etc. 

2. When a sentence contains several perfect members 
separated by semicolons, the concluding member re- 
quires a colon before it ; as, A divine Legislator, utter- 
ing his voice from heaven ; an almighty Governor, 
stretching forth his arm to punish or reward ; inform- 



PUNCTUATION — THE PERIOD. 221 

ing us of perpetual rest prepared for the righteous 
hereafter, and of indignation and wrath awaiting the 
wicked : these are the considerations which overawe 
the world, which support integrity, and check guilt, etc. 

3. Either a semicolon or a colon may be used when 
an example, a quotation, or a speech is introduced ; as, 
Always remember this ancient maxim : " Know thy- 
self." The scriptures give us an amiable representation 
of the Deity, in these words : " God is love," etc. 

4. The omission or insertion of a conjunction before 
the concluding member of a sentence, frequently deter- 
mines the use of the semicolon or colon. When the 
conjunction is expressed, the semicolon is used; as, 
" Apply yourself to learning * for it will redound to 
your honor." But when the conjunction is not ex- 
pressed before the concluding member, the colon is to 
be used ; as, " Apply yourself to learning : it will re- 
dound to your honor," etc. 

Obs. — The colon is now but little used by many authors 
except before examples following the expressions as follows : 
the following examples : in these words : etc. 

THE PERIOD. 

The Period must be used when a sentence is com- 
plete and independent, with respect to the sense in- 
tended ; as, God created all things. " Have charity 
towards all men." The Supreme Being changes not, 
either in his desire to promote our happiness, or in the 
plan of his administration. 
*10 



222 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

A Period is sometimes inserted between principal 
clauses of compound sentences which are connected by 
conjunctions ; as, Our position is, that happiness does 
not consist in greatness. And this position we make 
out by showing, that even what are supposed to be the 
peculiar advantage of greatness, the pleasure of ambi- 
tion and superiority, are in reality common to all condi- 
tions. But whether the pursuits of ambition are ever 
wise, whether they contribute more to the happiness or 
misery of the pursuers, is a different question ; and a 
question concerning which we are allowed to entertain 
great doubt. 

The Period must be used after all abreviated words; 
as, A. D.; Esq.; IT. S.; O.; Pen.; Q., etc. 

INTERROGATION POINT. 

A note of Interrogation is used at the end of an inter- 
rogative sentence, in asking a question ; as, Are you 
an American ? What is the chief end of man ? Who 
adorned the heavens with such exquisite beauty ? What 
is God? etc. 

Where it is only said that a question has been asked, 
the Interrogation should not be used ; as, The minister 
asked me why I wept. This sentence used with an In- 
terrogation must be as follows : The minister said to 
me, "Why dost thou weep V 

EXCLAMATION POINT. 

A note of Exclamation is used to express an emotion 
of the mind, occasioned by surprise, joy, grief, etc., 



PUNCTUATION. 223 

and sometimes to addresses and invocations ; as, Hear 
me Lord ! for thy loving kindness is very great ! 
My friend I this conduct amazes me ! How much van- 
ity in our pursuits ! What is more amiable than virtue ! 

PARENTHESIS. 

The Parenthesis is used to inclose some oblique 
remark or necessary information, introduced into the 
body of a sentence without affecting the grammatical 
construction; as, " Know ye not, brethren, (for I speak 
to them that know the law,) how that the law hath 
dominion over a man so long as he liveth," etc. 

The Parenthesis, or remarks included, should be 
punctuated with every stop that the nature of the re- 
marks will require, closing with the same kind of a point 
which the preceding member requires, (and it is read 
with a moderate depression of the voice,); as, "He 
loves nobly, (I speak of friendship,) who is not jealous 
when he has partners of love." 

Parenthesis, containing exclamations or interroga- 
tions, form an exception in punctuation ; as, If I grant 
his request, (and who could refuse him ?) I will secure 
his attachment and esteem. 

O.BS. — Commas are frequently used instead of Parenthesis. 

' An Apostrophe is used in place of a letter omit- 
ted ; as, E'er for ever ; LovPd — loved; thro' — 
through, etc. 



224 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

A A Caret in used to show that some word is omit- 
to 
ted or interlined ; as, He has a desire A study ; 

of mankind 

The proper study A is man. 
- A Hyphen is used at the end of a line, showing 
that part of a word is at the beginning of the fol- 
lowing line ; it is also used to connect compound 
words ; as, Apple-pie, brother-in-law, etc. 

§ A Section is used to divide a chapter or discourse 
into portions. 

Tf The Paragraph is used to denote the beginning 
of a new subject. 

[ ] Brackets or Crochets are properly used to en- 
close a phrase or word for the purpose of correc- 
tion, explanation, cr supplying a deficiency in a 
sentence ; they are used as follows : The wisest 
men [and, it might be added, the best, too,] are 
subject to human frailty. 

" " ! ' A Quotation is used to show that a passage 
is quoted in the author's words, and to mark a 
passage marked as a quotation. 

An Index is used to point out anything re- 
markable, or something that requires particular 
attention. 

The Brace is used to connect words that have 
one common term, or three lines in poetry 
having the same rhyme, called the triplet ; as, 

s ^ ax . jetc. 
syntaxis, ) 



PUNCTUATION — CHARACTERS. 225 

An Ellipsis is used when some letters or 

words are omitted ; as, J e for Judge, etc. 

Asterisk *, Obelisk f, Double Dagger J , and Paral- 
lels ||, small letters and figures, refer to some note in the 
margin, or at the bottom of the page. 

* * * Two or three asterisks denote the omission 
of some letters in some bold or indelicate ex- 
pression, or some defect in the manuscript, or 
sentences left out. 

— A Stroke is used to denote abruptness — a 
significant pause — an unexpected turn in the 
sentiment — or that the first clause is common 
to all the rest. 

Abbreviation is the shortening or contract- 
ing — using a letter or a few letters for a word ; 
as, Gen. for Genesis ; U. S. for United 
States] Wm. for William, etc. 

Inflections s^--' v -> indicate the quantity of the key- 
note, and its elevation and depression : 

w Breve marks a short vowel, syllable or word ; 

as, Pharaoh said, I will let you go ; You were 

not in safety, etc. 

- Droil marks a long vowel, syllable or word ; as, 
It is now late in the morning ; Your day is short. 

/ Acute accent indicates a sharpened or elevated 
stress of the voice on a syllable or word ; as, 



226 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Bring me that, dic'tion-a-ry ; Reuben is quite 
dem-o-crat'i-cal ; The fallacy few would mis- 
con-ceive', etc. 
v Grave accent denotes a depressed, solemn tone 
or sound of the voice ; as, I did not go to Utica N ; 
I expect to be at Synod\ in Pittsburgh, etc. 
Pieresis is placed over the second of two vow- 
els to show that they belong to different sylla- 
bles ; as, Coeval, coordinate, preemption, Reed- 
ucate, etc. 

Obs. — The Hyphen is sometimes placed between the vowels 
for the same purpose. 



CAPITALS— LETTERS. 

In our American language, words, according to cer- 
tain orders established in usage, begin with capital 
letters. 

Obs. — 1. The Roman letters, with some improvement, 
are in most common use in the United States — the small or 
" lower case" letters are used in forming most words and the 
greater part of the printed works. 

2. Italic letters are used to give emphasis and special impor- 
tance to words, clauses , sentences, and sometimes to a paragraph, 
quotation, etc. 

3. ©to €ttfliiotj letters arc uaco for ornament, or oarictn, ht 
title pages, etc. t 

1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, 
or any instrument, or other piece of writing, commences 
with a capital letter ; as, In the beginning God crea- 
ted the heaven and the eartn, etc. — Bible. 



CAPITALS — LETTERS. 22? 

2. All the appellations of the Deity ; as, Almighty, 
God, Jehovah, Most High, Supreme Being, etc 

3. Proper names, names of persons, counties, build- 
ings, waters, ships, etc. ; as, Annie, Columbus, Franklin 
county, Ohio, Joel, Gwynne Block, Virginia, etc. 

4. The pronoun Zand the interjection are written 
in capitals. 

5. The first word after a period ; also after a note of 
exclamation or interrogation, when the sentence before 
and the one after it are independent of each other. 

Obs. — If several exclamatory or interrogatory sentences are 
so connected, the latter sentences depending on the former, all 
of them, except the first, may begin with a small letter ; as> 
1 ' How doth the city sit solitary, that was full of people ! how 
are her habitations become as desolate ! how is she become as 
a widow! " 

6. The first word of every line in poetry ; as, 

Bold men were they, and true, that pilgrim-band, 
Who plough' d with venturous prow the stormy sea, 
Seeking a home for hunted Liberty 

Amid the ancient forests of a land 

7. Adjectives derived from the proper names of coun- 
tries, etc.; as, American, English, Grecian, Roman, 
Scocth, etc. 

8. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a 
colon ; as, Always remember this ancient maxim : "Know 
thyself/' etc. 

Obs. — "When a quotation is not introduced in the direct 
form, but follows a comma, the first word must not begin with 
a capital ; as, " Solomon observes, that ' pride goes before dis- 
traction ' " etc. 



228 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

9. Common nouns personified commence with capi- 
tals ; as, Come, gentle Spring ; Here Strife and Paction 
rule the day, etc. 

10. Every substantive and principal word in the 
titles of books are capitalized ; as, American Encyclo- 
pedia ; Compendium of American Literature ; Pinneo's 
Analytical Grammar of the English Language, etc. 

Obs. — Beside principal words, others may begin with capi- 
tals, when they are very emphatic, or when they are principal 
agents, or prominent in the subject of composition, etc. 

Letters are of various sizes, and have their corre- 
sponding appropriate names. The varieties of type in 
most common use are the following : 

1 . Pica. — ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRST 
UVWXYZ. — abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

2. Small Pica.— ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQ 
RSTUVWXYZ— abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

3. Long Primer. — ABCDEPGHIJKLMNOPQ 
RSTXJYWXYZ — abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

4. Bourgeois.— ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUV 

WXYZ — abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

5. Brevier. — ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQKSTU V WX 

YZ — abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

6. Minion.— ABCDEFGtIIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ-abcde 
fghijklmriopqrstuvwxyz. 

7. Nonpareil.— ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ — abcdefghij 
klmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

8. Agate -ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ — abcdefghijklmnopq 
rstuvwxyz. 

9. Pearl .— ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ— abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

Diamond ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ—abcdefghijklmEopqrsturw^z. 



PART IV 



PROSODY 



That part of Grammar called Prosody treats of Elo- 
cution and Versification, including, also, the art of ad- 
justing the accent and metrical arrangements of sylla- 
bles, in composition for the Lyre, Organ, etc. 



ELOCUTION. 

A correct Pronunciation — the utterance or delivery 
of words, particularly in public discourses, arguments, 
etc., is called Elocution. 

In order to read and speak with effect and grace, 
attention must be given to the proper pitch of the voice, 
the accent and quantity of the syllables, and also to 
emphasis, pauses and tones. 

Pitch. — In the management of the Voice, it should not be 
either too high, or too low : it ought to be distinct and clear ; 
the utterance neither too quick, nor too slow, and not too mo- 
notonous, nor yet too varied. 

Accent is giving a particular stress of the voice to a cer- 
tain syllable in a word ; as, Ym-tue, YiR-iuous. The syllable 
vie, receives the accent. The accent is generally marked thus : 
Vir 7 tue, vir 7 tuous: 
11 



230 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Quantity, or the time which is required to pronounce a 
syllable, varies relatively, giving a long syllable twice the 
quantity of a short one ; as, Note, pine, tube, require to be 
sounded as long again as not, pin, tub, etc. 

In American versification, an accented syllable is long ; an 
unaccented one is short. 

Emphasis is a peculiar impressiveness of expression or 
weight of thought; as, He dwelt on the subject with gee at 
emphasis, etc. In Rhetoric, it is a particular stress of utterance 
or force of voice, given to the words, or parts of a discourse, 
whose signification the speaker intends to impress specially on 
his audience, etc. 

Pauses are temporary cessations of the voice in reading or 
speaking, for the purpose of taking breath, and to give the 
hearer a distinct perception of the meaning of each sentence, 
and also the whole discourse. In verse, there are two kinds 
of pauses : the cesural, dividing the verse ; and the final, to 
close it. 

Tone consists in the modulation of the voice, and the notes, 
or variations of sounds, which are employed in speaking, in- 
tended to express the different emotions, feelings, or senti- 
ments, etc. 



EHETOEIOAL DIVISIONS OF A DISCOUKSE. 

The principal parts of a discourse are generally six 
in number — namely, the Exordium, Narration, Prop- 
osition, Confirmation, Refutation, and Peroration. 



PROSODY — DISCOURSE, 231 

The Exordium, or beginning of a discourse, is the part in 
which the writer or speaker gives some intimation of his sub- 
ject, and solicits the attention and favor of his audience or 
readers. 

The Narrative is a brief recital of all the facts connected 
with the case from the beginning to end. 

The Proposition is the part in which is given the correct 
statement of the question, specifying the points maintained, 
and those in which the writer or speaker differs from an 
adversary. 

The Confirmation assembles all the proofs and arguments 
that can be addressed in support of what has been essayed to 
be established, beginning and ending with the stronger reasons, 
reserving the weaker for the middle. 

The Refutation is the part in which the writer or speaker 
answers arguments and objections of an opponent. 

The Peroratoin, or Conclusion, sums up the principal argu- 
ments, and endeavors to excite the sentiments of the hearer or 
reader in favor of the discourse. 



DIFFERENT KINDS OF COMPOSITION. 

All Compositions y whether spoken or written, are of 
two kinds, either Prose, or Poetry. 

Prose Compositions are those in which the sentiments and 
thoughts are expressed in a common and ordinary language. 



232 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Poetic Compositions are those in which the sentiments and 
thoughts are expressed by such an arrangement and selection 
of words, as please the ear, and captivate the fancy. 

Thousands speak and write prose for one who does so 
in verse, yet it is generally allowed that poetic composi- 
tions, in all countries, have preceded those in prose. 

Compositions, whether in prose or poetry, are divided 
into different classes, and arranged under different heads. 



DIFFEKENT KIND OF PKOSE COMPOSITIONS. 

The different kinds into which prose compositions may 
be divided are : Biography, Essay, History, Letters, 
Memoirs, Narrative, Novels, Orations, Speeches, Philos- 
ophy, Sermons,* etc. 

Biography is a particular species of history, giving an ac- 
count of the birth, most important occurrences in the life and 
also the death of an individual : as, 

Samuel Woodwokth was a native of Scituate, Mass., 
and was born in 1786. Having learned the art of painting in 
his native place, he removed to New York, and was for some 
years editor of a newspaper there. Afterward he published a 
weekly miscellany, called " The Ladies' Literary Gazette;" 
and in 1823, in conjunction with Mr. George P. Morris, he es- 
tablished u The New York Mirror," long the most popular 
journal of literature and art in this country. He died in New 
York, December 7, 1842, much respected for his moral worth 
and poetic talent. 

Mr. Woodworth published, in 1813, an "Account of the 
War with Great Britain," and, in 1818, a volume of " Poems, 
Odes and Songs, and other Metrical Effusions," etc. 

Charles D. Cleveland. 

* Dialogues are a species of composition — as conversation between two 
or more persons— and are unlimited in variety, applying to all subjects. 



PROSODY — COMPOSITION — HISTORY. 233 

Essay means trial or attempt : a composition intended to 
illustrate or prove a particular subject, usually shorter and less 
methodical and finished than a system — all compositions of 
this description may be arranged under this title. 



UNWRITTEN POETRY. 

There is poetry that is not written. It is living in the hearts 
of many to whom rhyme is a mystery. As I here use it, it is 
delicate perception; something which is in the nature, ena- 
bling one man to detect harmony, and know forms of beauty, 
better than another. It is like a peculiar gift of vision — not 
creating a new world, but making the world we live in more 
visible ; enabling us to combine and separate and arrange ele- 
ments of beauty into the fair proportions of a picture. The 
poet hears music in common sounds, and sees loveliness by the 
wayside. There is not a change in the sky, nor a noise of the 
water, nor a sweet human voice, which does not bring him 
pleasure. He sees all the light and hears all the music about 
him — and this is poetry. 

The power of nature over such a mind as I have described 
is, in cases of extreme mental suffering, or abandonment, 
stronger than any other moral influence. There is something 
in its deep and serene beauty inexpressibly soothing to the dis- 
eased mind. It steals over it silently and gradually, like an 
invisible finger, erasing its dark lines and removing its brood- 
ing shadows, and before he is aware, he is loving, and enjoy- 
ing, and feeling, as he did in better days when his spirit was 
untroubled. To those who see nothing about them but physi- 
cal convenience, these assertions may seem extravagant ; but 
they are nevertheless true ; and blessed be the Author of our 
faculties, there are some who know, by experience, that nature 
is a friend and a physician to the sick and solitary spirit of her 
worshiper. Nathaniel P. Willis. 



History is a regular account of past transactions or facts 
respecting some particular age, nation, nations or states; and 
details chiefly plans of government, movements of armies, and 
events of great general interest, in the order in which they 
took place, with their causes and effects, etc. 



234 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

UNITED STATES. 

PERIOD II. 

Distinguished for Settlements. 

Extending from the first permanent English settlement, at 
Jamestown, Virginia, 1607, to the declaration of war by 
England against France, 1756, called " The French and In- 
dian War." 

I. VIRGINIA. 

1. Prior to the year 1607, a period of one hundred and fif- 
teen years from the the discovery of San Salvador by Colum- 

. bus, several attempts were made to effect settlements in various 
parts of North America ; but none had proved successful. In 
the month of May of this year, a colony from England, con- 
sisting of one hundred and five persons, arrived in Virginia ; 
and, on a beautiful peninsula in James Kiver, began a settle- 
ment, which they called Jamestown. This was the first per- 
manent settlement effected by Europeans in the United States. 

2. This place was called Jamestown in honor of James I. of 
England, who, in 1606, claiming the country lying between 
the 34th and 45th degrees of north latitude — that is, from the 
mouth of Cape Fear Kiver, one hundred and fifty miles north- 
east from Charleston, South Carolina, to Halifax, the capital 
of Nova Scotia, divided it into two nearly equal parts, and 
granted it to two companies, called the London and Ply- 
mouth Companies. The southern part, called South Vir- 
ginia, he conveyed to the "London Company;" and the 
northern part, called North Virginia, to the "Plymouth 
Company." 

3. The first settlement of Virginia was commenced under 
the auspices of the "London Company." The expedition was 
commanded by Captain Christopher Newport ; but the govern- 
ment of the colony was framed in England, before it sailed. 
It was to consist of a council of seven persons, -with a presi- 
dent, to be elected by the council from their number. "Who 
composed it was unknown at the time the expedition sailed, 
their names being carefully placed in a box, which was to be 
opened after their arrival, etc. Charles A. Goodrich. 

Letters are easy and familiar compositions that pass from 
one person to another appropriate to every subject, though 
mostly relating to common occurrences of life and business. 



PROSODY — COMPOSITION — MEMOIRS. 235 

LETTER TO JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 

Quincy, 18 February, 1825. 
My Dear Son: — 

I have received your letter of the 9th. Xever 
did I feel so much solemnity as upon this occasion. The mul- 
titude of my thoughts, and the intensity of my feelings, are 
too much for a mind like mine, in its ninetieth year. May 
the blessing of God Almighty continue to protect you to the 
end of your life, as it has heretofore protected you in so remar- 
kable a manner from your cradle ! I offer the same prayer 
for your lady and your family, 

And am your affectionate father, 

John Adams. 

Memoirs consist of familiar and loose records of individuals 
and nations, without that regularity of method which Biogra- 
phy and History requires : also, the history of a society, or its 
journals and statements of its proceedings, etc. 

IN CONGRESS, FRIDAY, JUNE TTH, I1T6. 

The Delegates from Virginia moved, in obedience to instruc- 
tions from their constituents, that Congress should declare that 
the United Colonies are, and ought of right to be, free and 
independent States; that they are absolved from all obedience 
to the British Crown, and that all political connection be- 
tween them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, 
totally dissolved; that measures should be immediately taken 
for procuring the assistance of foreign powers, and a Confed- 
eration be formed to bind the Colonies more closely together. 

The House t eing obliged to atted at that time to some other 
business, the proposition was referred to the next day, when 
the members were ordered to attend punctually at 10 o'clock. 

Saturday, June 8th. They proceeded to take it into consid- 
eration, and referred it to a committee of the Whole, into 
which they immediately resolved themselves, and passed that 
day and Monday the 10th, in debating the subject. 

It was argued by Wilson, Kobert K. Livingston, E. Kut- 
ledge, Dickenson, and others, 



236 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

That, though they were friends to the measures themselves, 
and saw the impossibility that we should ever again be united 
with Great Britain, yet they were against adopting them at 
this time : 

That the conduct that we had formerly observed was wise 
and proper now, of deferring to take any capital step till the 
voice of the people drove us into it : 

That they were our power, and without them our delibera- 
tions could not be carried into effect : 

That the people of the Middle Colonies (Maryland, Dela- 
ware, Pennsylvania, the Jerseys and New York), were not yet 
ripe for bidding adieu to British connection; but that they 
were fast ripening, and in a short time would join in the gen- 
eral voice of America. Etc. 

James Madison. 



Narrative is a plain and simple statement of such facts 
and occurrences as a person may have either seen or heard, 
the recital of a story, or a continued account of the particulars 
of events, including Voyages, Travels, etc. 



NARRATIVE — EXPLORING EXPEDITION. 



I set out from Washington City, on the 2d .day of May, 
1842, and arrived at St. Louis, by way of New York, the 22d 
of May, where the necessary preparations were completed and 
the expedition commenced. I proceeded in a steamboat to 
Chouteau's Landing, about four hundred miles by water from 
St. Louis, and near the mouth of the Kansas River, whence 
we proceeded twelve miles to Mr. Cyprian Chouteau's trading- 
house, where we completed our final arrangements for the ex- 
pedition. 

Bad weather, which interfered with astronomical observa- 
tions, delayed us several days in the early part of June at this 
post, which is on the right bank of the Kansas River, about 
ten miles above the mouth, and six beyond the western bound- 
ary of Missouri. The sky cleared off at length, and we were 
enabled to determine our position. The elevation above the 
sea is about 700 feet. Etc. 

Col. J. C. Fremont. 



PROSODY — COMPOSITION — NOVELS. 23T 

Novels give an account of characters and events that never 
existed in reality, but the author, for the purpose of either 
affording pleasure, or inculcating some important lesson, or 
exhibiting the operation of the passions, particularly that of 
love, fictitiously narrates in prose as realities, etc. 



DEATH OP EVA. 

Maria, roused by the entrance of the doctor, appeared, hur- 
riedly, from the next room. 

"Augustine ! Cousin !— O ! — what ! " she hurriedly began. 

" Hush ! " said St. Clare, hoarsely ; " she is dying /" 

Mammy heard the words, and flew to awaken the servants. 
The house was soon roused — lights were seen, footsteps heard, 
anxious faces thronged the veranda, and looked tearfully 
through the glass doors; but St. Clare heard and said nothing 
— he saw only that look on the face of the liti le sleeper. 

u O, if she would only wake, and speak once more ! " he 
said; and, stooping over her, he spoke in her ear — " Eva, 
darling ! " 

The large blue eyes unclosed — a smile passed over her face ; 
she tried to raise her head, and to speak. 

M Do you know me, Eva? " 

" Dear papa," said the child, with a last effort, throwing her 
arms about his neck. In a ] aoment they dropped again ; and 
as St. Clare raised his head, he saw a spasm of mortal agony 
pass over the face — she struggled for breath, and threw up her 
little hands. 

" O God, this is dreadful ! " he said, turning away in agony, 
and wringing Tom's hand, scarce conscious what he was doing. 
" Oh, Tom, my boy, it is killing me ! " 

Tom had his master's hands between his own ; and, with 
tears streaming down his dark cheeks, looked up for help where , 
he had always been used to look. 

"Pray that this maybe cut short!" said St. Clare — "this 
wrings my heart." 

u O, bless the Lord! it's over — it's over, dear Master ! " said 
Tom; " look at her." 

The child lay panting on her pillows, as one exhausted — the 
large clear eyes rolled up and fixed. Ah, what said those eyes 
that spoke so much of heaven ? Earth was passed, and earth- 
ly pain; but so solemn, so mysterious, was the triumphant 



238 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

brightness of the face, that it checked even the sobs of sorrow. 
They pressed around her, in breathless stillness. 

" Eva ! " said St. Clare, gently. 

She did not hear. 

" 0, Eva, tell us what you see ? "What is it ? " said her 
father. 

A bright, a glorious, smile passed over her face, and she said, 
brokenly, " O ! love — joy — peace ! V gave one sigh, and passed 
from death unto life ! Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe. 



Orations and Speeches are addresses or discourses composed 
according to the rules of oratory, and spoken in public. Ora- 
tions are of three kinds ; Demonstrative, Deliberative and Judi- 
cial. In modern usage, the word Oration is applied chiefly to 
academic declamations, and to discourses pronounced on spe- 
cial occasions ; as, An oration on some anniversary ; A funeral 
oration, etc. A Speech is an address made to an assembly or 
congregation of people. An Address may be a speech made in 
public, to one individual in authority, or of respect, etc. 

ADDRESS TO LAFAYETTE. 

General: The House of Representatives of the United 
States, impelled by its own feelings, and by those of the whole 
American people, could not have assigned to me a more grat- 
ifying duty than that of presenting to you cordial congratula- 
tions upon the occasion of your recent arrival in the United 
States, in compliance with the wishes of Congress, and to 
assure you of the very high satisfaction which your presence 
affords on this early theatre of your glory and renown. 
Although but a few of the members who compose this body 
shared with you in the war of the Revolution, all have from 
impartial history, or from faithful tradition, a knowledge of 
the perils, the sufferings, and the sacrifices which you volun- 
tarily encountered, and the signal services, in America and in 
Europe, which you performed for an infant, a distant, and an 
alien people; and all feel and own the very great extent of 
the obligations under which you have placed our country. 
But the relations in which you have ever stood to the United 
States, interesting and important as they have been, do not 



PROSODY — PHILOSOPHY. 239 

constitute the only motive of the respect and admiration 
which the House of Kepresentatives entertain for you. Your 
consistency of character, your uniform devotion to regulated 
liberty, in all the vicissitudes of a long and arduous life, also 
commands its admiration. During all the recent convulsions 
of Europe, amid, as after the dispersion of every political 
storm, the people of the United States have beheld you, true 
to your old principles, firm and erect, cheering and animating 
with your well-known voice, the votaries of liberty, its faith- 
ful and fearless champion, ready to shed the last drop of that 
blood which here you so freely and nobly spilled, in the same 
holy caues. Etc. — Henry Clay. 



Philosophy. — A term denoting an explanation of the 
reasons of things ; or an investigation of the causes of all 
phenomena, both of matter and mind. When applied to any 
department of knowledge, it denotes the general laws or prin- 
ciples under which the facts or phenomena of the subject are 
comprehended. That which treats of matter or physics is 
called Natural Philosophy, etc. 



PROPERTIES OF BODIES. 

Natural Philosophy, or the Science of Nature, has for 
its objects the investigation of the properties of all natural 
bodies and their mutual action. The term Physics has a simi- 
lar meaning. 

1. A Body is any snbstance of which we can gain a knowl- 
edge by our senses. Hence air, water, and earth, in all their 
modifications are called bodies. 

2. There are certain properties which are common to all 
bodies. They are Impenetrabilty, Extension, Figure, Divisi- 
bility, Inertia, and Attraction. 

3. Impenetrability. — By impenetrability is meant that 
two bodies cannot occupy the same space at the same time, or, 
that the ultimate particles of matter cannot be penetrated. 
Thus, if a vessel be exactly filled with water, and a stone 5> or 
any other substance heavier than water, be dropped into it a 
quantity of water will overflow, just equal to the size of the 



240 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

heavy body. This shows that the stone only separates or dis- 
places the particles of water, and, therefore, that the two sub- 
stances cannot exist in the same place at the same time. Etc. 

J. L. Comstoek. 



Sermons are illustrations of some doctrines of Scripture, or 
an exhortation to the practice of some moral and religious 
duty enjoined by Christianity, delivered in public by a 
licensed clergyman for the purpose of religious instruction, 
usually grounded on some text or passage of Scripture. 



SERMON PREACHED APRIL A. D. 1T39. 

Mat. xxv., 46. 

These shall go away into everlasting punishment. 

In this chapter we have the most particular description of 
the day of judgment of any in the whole Bible. Christ here 
declares that when he shall hereafter sit on the throne of his 
glory, the righteous and the wicked shall be set before him, 
and separated one from the other, as a shepherd divideth his 
sheep from the goats, f * In the words of the text is the 
account of the execution of the sentence on the wicked or 
the ungodly, concerning which it is my purpose to observe 
two things : 

1. The duration of the punishment on which they are said 
to enter: it is called everlasting punishment. 

2. The time of their entrance on this everlasting punish- 
ment; viz. after the day of judgment. • When the heavens 
shall have waxed old like a garment, and as a vesture shall 
be changed, then shall be the time when the wicked shall 
enter on their punishment. 

Doctrine. — The wicked in hell will be absolutely eternal. 
There are two opinions which I mean to oppose in this doc- 
trine. One is, that eternal death signifies no more than eter- 
nal annihilation; that God will punish their wickedness by 
eternally abolishing their lives. 



PROSODY — FIGURES. 241 

The other opinion which I mean to oppose is, that though 
the punishment of the wicked shall consist in sensihle misery, 
yet it shall not be absolutely eternal; but only for a very 
long continuance. 

Therefore, to establish the doctrine in opposition to these 
different opinions I shall undertake to show, 

I. That it is not contrary to the divine perfection, to 
inflict on wicked men a punishment that is absolutely eternal. 

II. That the eternal death which God threatens, is not 
annihilation, but an abiding, sensible punishment or misery. 

III. That this misery will not continue for a very long 
time, but will be absolutely without end. 

IV. That various good ends will be obtained by the eter- 
nal punishment of the wicked. 

I. I am to show that it is not contrary to the divine 
perfections to inflict on wicked man a punishment that is ab- 
solutely eternal. 

This is the sum of the objection usually made against this 
doctrine, That it is inconsistent with the justice, and especially 
with the mercy of God. And some say, if it be strictly just 
yet how can we suppose that a merciful God can bear eter- 
nally to torment his creatures. 

1. I shall briefly show, that it is not inconsistent with the 
justice of God to inflict eternal punishment. Etc. 

President Edwards, 



FIGURES. 

In Grammar a Figure is some deviation from the or- 
dinary form, or construction, or application of words 
in a sentence, for the purpose of greater elegance, pre- 
cision, or variety of expression, etc. 

There are three kinds of Figures ; viz. — of Etymol- 
ogy, of Syntax, and of Rhetoric. Etymology and Syntax 
refer to the form and construction of words ; and 
Rhetoric to eir p cation. 



242 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 



FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. 

A Figure of Etymology is merely a departure from the 
simple or usual form of words. Of these departures the most 
important classes are arranged as follows : Apher-e-sis, A-poc- 
o-pe, Dier-e-sis, Par-a-go-ge, Pros-thesis, Syn-er-e-sis, Syn-co-pe, 
and Tm-e-sis. 

Apheresis is the elision or taking of a letter or syllable 
from the beginning of a word; as, J bove, 'gainst, 'gan, 'neath / 
for Above, against, began, beneath, etc. 

Apocope is the elision of a letter or syllable from the final 
end of a word ; as, Th\ tho\ for the, though, etc. 

Dieresis is the division of two concurrent vowels into dif- 
ferent syllables marked thus (••) over the second vowel; as, 



Paragoge affixes a letter or syllable to the end of a word ; 
as, Awaken, bounder, deary, for awake, bound, dear, etc. 
Coordinate, Haarkies, reembody, Zoology, etc. 

Prosthesis prefixes a letter or syllable to a word; as, 
^Idown, agoing, Repaint, enchain, for down, going, paint, chain. 

Syneresis contracts two syllables into one, in either othog- 
raphy or pronunciation; as, Ddst, lov'st, see'st, His, thou'rt; 
for Doest, loved, see'est, it is, thou art, etc. 



PROSODY — EXERCISES. 243 

Syncope is the elision or retrenchment of one or more let- 
ters or a syllable from the middle of a word ; as, E'en, flow' ry, 
lov'd, o'er , sp'rit, wat'ry, for even, flowery, loved, over, spirit, 
watery, etc. 

Tmesis separates the parts of a compound word by the 
intervention of one or more words; as, How short soever ; 
On which side soever ; To us ward) What time soever, etc. 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 

Around 'gan Marmion wildly stare. — Greene. 
'Mid scenes of confusion. — 

And therefore thou may'st think my 'havior light. 
What! have you let the false enchanter 'scape? — Clark. 

Tis the sunset of life that gives mystic lore. — J. H. 

And that is spoke with such a dying fall. 
Tho' the whole loosened spring aroung her blows. 
T' whom th' Archangel. — Clark. 

Two courts of jurisdiction coordinate. 
Silent and reentering Angels. — Webster.. 

The dormant faculties to awaken — 

And to awaken the dead. 

Nor deem that kindly nature did him wrong. 

Else would a maiden blush bepaint my cheek. 
Let fall adown his silver beard some tears. — Clark. 
The lamps shone o'er fair women and brave men. 
Did you not hear it ? No : 'twas but the wind. 
'Tis mine to teach th' inactive hand to reap. 
Kind nature's bounties o'er the globe diffus'd. — Greene. 



244 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Or serve they as a flow'ry verge to bind. 

The fluid skirts of that same wat'ry cloud. 

Lest it again dissolves and show'r the earth. 
A heart has throbbed that leathern breast, 
And tears adown that dusky cheek have rolled. 
And to us ward it was cast. 
How much soever we it may desire. 
Whence is that strange sound which now 'larms his ear? 
( The following verses may besyncopized to correct measure :) 

It is not the dread of death — it is more — 

It is the dread of madness. — L. M. Davidson. 

For we have sworn, by our countries assaulters, 
By the virgins they have dragged from our altars. 

And every tempest howling over his head 

Kenders the savage wilderness more wild. 



FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

A Figure of Syntax deviates, from the ordinary ar- 
rangement of words in constructing a sentence/for the 
sake of greater beauty or force. 

In Syntax there are six principal figures, viz : Ellip- 
ses, E-nal-a-ge, Hy-per-ba-ton, Pa-ren-the-sis, Ple-on- 
asm, and Syl-lep-sis. 

Ellipsis is the omission of some word or words which are 
necessary to complete the grammatical construction, but being 
readily understood are not necessarily expressed to convey 
the meaning. 



FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 245 

By Ellipsis any part of speech, or even a whole clause, may 
be omitted, as follows : 

Nouns may be omitted; as, A dozen [sheeves] of wheat. 
One [book'] of my books. The common [law] and the statute 
law, etc. 

Pronouns may be omitted ; as, I love [him] and [1] fear 
him. The house [which'] we live in, etc. 

• Verbs may be omitted; as, "Who did this? John [did if]. 
"Who said so? Mother [said so]. Who will go? I [will go], etc. 

Adjectives may be omitted; as, A man and [a] woman. 
The year, [the] month, and [the] day. This usage is correct 
in one place and not [correct] in another [place], etc. 

Adverbs may be omitted; as, Exceedingly great and [ex- 
ceedingly] powerful. He spoke [wisely] and acted wisely, etc. 

Prepositions may be omitted; as, [In] this month. [On] 
next Sabbath. She departed [from] this life, etc. 

Conjunctious may be omitted ; as, The fruit of the spirit is 
love, [and] joy, [and] peace, [and] long suffering, [and] gen- 
tleness, [and] goodness, [and] faith, [and] meekness, [and] 
temperance. I know [that] he will go, etc. 

Participles may be omitted; as. That [being] over they 
part, etc. 

A Clause may be omitted ; as, The active commonly do 
more than they are bound to do ; the indolent [ commonly do] 
less [than they are bound to do], etc. 



Enalage is the use of one part of speech for another, or a 
change of words, or a substitution of one gender, person, 
number, case, mode, tense, or voice, of the same word for 
another. This figure is closely allied to solecism, and should 
be sparingly indulged in, as seen in examples following : 
*11 



246 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

They fall successive [ly] and successive [ly] rise. 
So furious was that onset's shock, 
Distinction's gates at once unlock. — Brown. 

When one single individual says to another — We did so to 
you — he uses the plural number for the singular. 

Hyperbaton is the using of words in an inverted order, or 
transposing the parts of a sentence ; as, A man he was to all 
the country dear. His voice sublime is heard afar. Rings the 
world with the vain stir. Its song rolls the ivoods along, etc. 

In Poetry this figure is much employed ; and its judi- 
cious use confers harmony, strength, variety, and vivacity 
upon composition. Ambiguity or obscurity should be care- 
fully avoided in using figures of hyperbaton. 

Parenthesis inserts a circumstance or clause in the body or 
between the parts of a sentence; as, Consider (and may the 
consideration sink deep into your hearts) the fatal conse- 
quences of a wicked life. Our opportunities are (like our 
souls) very precious. 

How then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
Virtue alone is happiness below. — Covell. 

Pleonasm allows the introduction of words, not necessary to 
complete the Grammatical construction of a sentence, giving 
greater force or emphasis to the expression — done by repeat- 
ing the same word or words or by using different words to 
express the same ideas; as, 

Charles he neglected writing. I sit me down. Verily, verily, I 
say unto you. The moon herself is lost in heaven. All ye 
inhabitants of the world, and dwellers on the earth. u Simon 
Peter answered and said — I know thee who thou art" etc. 

Syllepsis substitutes one word for another, so in figures of 
this class we conceive the sense of words otherwise than the 
words import, and construe them according to the sense con- 



FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 24? 

ceived, which is in general connected with some figure of 
rhetoric; as, "The Word was made flesh and dwelt among us, 
and we beheld his glory." While evening draws her crimson 
curtain round. "We say thus of the sun, u He shines;" of a 
ship, "She sails," etc. 



FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

A Rhetorical Figure deviates from the ordinary appli- 
cation of words in speech, to give animation, beauty, 
and strength to the discourse or composition. Figures 
of this class are sometimes called tropes — the following- 
are the most important, viz : A Sim-i-le, A Met-a- 
phor, Al-le-go-ry, An-tith-e-sis, A-pos-tro-phe, Cli- 
max, Ecpho-ne-sis, Er-o-te-sis, Hy-per-bo-le, I-ro-ny, 
Im-age-ry, Li-to-tes, Me-ton-y-my, Pros-o-po-pecia, 
Par-a-lep-sis, and Syn-ec-do-che. 

A Simile is a comparison of the resemhlance of two things, 
though very different, in many respects, yet having some 
strong point or points of similitude by which the character or 
qualities may be illustrated, or presented in an impressive 
light, and is generally introduced by as, like, or so ; as, A vir- 
tuous man, slandered by evil tongues, is like a diamond ob- 
scured by smoke. "He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers 
of water y That man is like a fox. The soldiers fought like 
lions. "As the whirlwind passeth, so is the wicked no more." 

Man like the generous vine, supported lives; 

The strength he gains is from the embrace he gives. — Brown. 



248 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

A Metaphor is a similitude without the sign of compari- 
son ; this figure applies the name or some attribute or action 
of one object directly to another ; as, That man is sl/ox. The 
soldiers were lions in the combat. The clouds consign their 
treasures to the field. — Covell. 

His eyes was morning's brightest ray. — - 

Wild fancies in his moody brain, 
GamboVd unbridled and unbound. 

An Allegory is a figurative sentence or discourse, in which 
the principle subject is described by another subject resembling 
it in its properties and circumstances. Thus the principle 
subject is kept out of view, leaving the intentions of the 
speaker or writer to be collected by the resemblance of the 
secondary to the primary subject; one of the finest allegories 
is in the 80th Pslam, 8 v. Thou hast brought a vine out of 
Egypt; thou hast cast out the heathen and planted it. Etc. 

Did I but purpose to embark with thee 
On the smooth surface of a summer's sea, 
While gentle zephyrs play in prosp'rous gales, 
And fortune's favor fills the swelling sails, 
But would forsake the ship, and make the shore, 
When the winds whistle, and the tempests roar ; 
No, Henry, no. — Lacey. 

Antithesis is the placing of words and ideas of different or 
contrary signification, contrasting words or sentiments to give 
greater effect ; as, By honor and dishonor, by evil report and 
good report, as deceivers, and yet true. — Clark. The wicked 
flee when no man pursueth, but the righteous are bold as 
a lion. — Solomon. 

Yet at thy call, the hardy tar pursued, 

Pale, but intrepid ; sad, but unsubdued. — Boyd. 



PROSODY — FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 249 

Apostrophe is a diversion of speech or a sudden digression 
from the tenor of discourse to address a person or thing pres- 
ent or absent ; as, " Death is swallowed up in victory, O Death ! 
where is thy sting ? O grave ! where is thy victory?" This is 
a tale for fathers and for mothers — young men and young 
women, you cannot understand it. — Everett. 

But nurse nor infant have I ever seen, 
Nor heard of Anna since that fatal hour. 
My murder' d child! had thy fond mother feared 
The loss of thee, she had loud fame defied, 
Despised her father's rage, her father's grief, 
And wandered with thee through the scorning world. 

Lacey. 

The use of this figure frequently occurs at the bar in the 
advocate turning from the Jury and addressing a few remarks 
to the Court. 

Climax is a series of members in a sentence, each rising in 
importance above the one which precedes it, from the first to 
the last ; as, "Tor all things are yours; and ye are Christ's; 
and Christ is GOD'S." "And besides this, giving all dili- 
gence, add to your faith, virtue ; and to virtue, knowledge ; 
and to knowledge, temperance ; and to temperance, patience ; 
and to patience, godliness ; and to godliness, brotherly kind- 
ness; and to brotherly kindness, charity." 

The cloud-capt towers, the gorgeous palaces, 

The solemn temples, the great globe itself 

YEA, ALL THAT IT INHABITS, shall dissolve, 

And, like the baseless fabric of a vision, 

Leave not a wreck behind. — Lacey. 



250 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Ecphokesis is an animated or pathetic exclamation denoting 
some violent emotion of the mind; as, u O that I had wings 
like a dove ! for then would I fly away and be at rest ! " "O, 
the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and the knowledge 
of God." 

Ah Eloquence ! thou wast undone ; 
Wast from thy native country driven. 
When Tyranny eclipsed the sun, 
And blotted out the stars of heaven ! — Cary. 

Erotesis is using an earnest interrogative, in which the 
speaker adopts a form of question, not to express a doubt, but, 
in general, confidently to assert the reverse of what is asked — 
used either affirmatively or negatively ; as, 

Are all apostles? are all prophets? 'are all teachers? — 
1 Cor. xii: 29. 

" Canst thou by searching find out God? Canst thou find 
out the Almighty unto perfection ? " 

Am I not an apostle ? am I not free ? have I not seen Jesus 
Christ our Lord ? are ye not my work in the Lord ? — 1 Cor. ix. 

Is it of moment to the peace of heaven 
That I should be afflicted thus? — Lacey. 



Hyperbole expresses much more or less than the truth — 
represents a thing as either far greater or far less, better or 
worse, than it is in reality : as, 

u Rivers of waters run down my eyes, because they keep not 
thy law." (David says of Saul and Jonathan), "They were 
swifter than eagles ; they were stronger than lions." 

With fury driven 
The waves mount up, and wash the face of Aeavew.— Clark." 

iMAGERYps a lively^representation of past or 'future events 
or distant objects, as actually present to the eye or senses ; as, 



PROSODY — FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 251 

And now it is evening. A rude lamp glimmers darkly on 
the table, the tagged laces are laid aside, and Buyan alone is 
busy with his Bible, the Concordance, and his pen, ink and 
paper. He writes as joy did make him write. — Cheever. 

Csesar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and enters Italy. — 
The combat thickens : on ye brave !— Bullion. 

See lofty Lebanon his head advance : 

See nodding forests on the mountains dance. — Greene. 

Irony is a kind of ridicule, exposing errors or faults by seem- 
ingly to adopt, approve, or defend them — expressing strong 
reproof or censure under the appearance of praise ; as, 

He was as virtuous as Nero (vile). You have a good libe- 
ral heart, indeed ; never done a benevolent act. Elijah mocked 
them, and said, Cry aloud, for he is a God : either he is talking, 
or he is pursuing, or he is on a journey, or peradventure he 
sleepeth, and must be awaked. — 1 Kings xviii. 

And we brave men are satisfied, 

If we ourselves escape his s word.— r Clark. 

Litotes is a diminution or softening of sentiment for the 
sake of avoiding censure, or of expressing more strongly what 
is intended ; as, 

A citizen of no mean city — i. e., an illustrious city. I do not 
commend — I blame. The words are not harmless, etc. 

Metonymy is a trope, in which one word is put for another 
— a cause for the effect, or the effect for the cause ; the con- 
tainer for the thing contained, or the sign for the thing signi- 
fied ; as, 

Crown, for kiiig ; City, for citizens; Gray hairs, for old age; 
Heart, for affections ; God is our salvation (savior) ; The kettle 
boils (water, etc.) ; He addressed the Chair (President) ; u They 
have Moses and the Prophets ; 7? We read Isaiah, etc. 



252 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Prosopopeia includes all personification — represents things 
as persons, or inanimate objects as animated beings : an absent 
person is introduced as speaking, or a deceased person as alive 
and present ; as, 

Joy has her tears. His sword trembles at his side, and longs 

to glitter in his hand. The sky saddens with the gathered 

t storm. The sea saw it, and fled ; Jordan was driven back. The 

mountains skipped like rams, and the little hills like lambs. 

Etc. — Ps. cxiv. 

And old Experience learns too late, 
That all is vanity below. — Clark. 

" Earth trembled from her entrals, as again 

In pangs, and nature gave a second groan : 

Sky lower' d, and muttering thunder, some sad drops 

Wept, at completing of the mortal sin." 

Yonder comes the powerful king of day 

Rejoicing in the East. * * * * 

He looks in boundless majesty abroad. — Boyd. 

Paralepsis express a pretended or apparent ommission — 
it is a figure by which a speaker professes to pass by what, at 
the same time, he really mentions ; as, 

Horatius was once a very promising young gentleman, but 
in process of time he became so addicted to gaming, not to men- 
tion his drunkenness and debauchery, that he soon exhausted his 
estate and ruined his constitution. — Bullion. 

Without alluding to your customs of extortion and forestalling, 
I would ask you how you justify your conduct, and reconcile 
it with your religious profession ? 

Synecdoche is a trope by which the whole of a thing is put- 
for a part, or a part for the whole ; a genus for a species, or a 
spe 3ies for a genus ; an indefinite number for a definite, etc.; as, 



PROSODY. 253 

The head, for the person ; The waves, for the sea ; Ten thou- 
sand, for any great numher; Man is mortal ; We get our bread 
by our industry [all necessaries). 

When the tempest stalks abroad, 

Seek the shelter of my door. 

Oh! ever cursed be the hand, 

That wrought this ruin in the land. — Clark. 



POETRY. 

BLANK VERSE. 

All Poetry, which depends upon measure alone with- 
out rhyme, or any correspondence of sound in the termi- 
nating syllables of different lines, is blank verse : par- 
ticularly applied to the heroic measure, etc., without 
rhyme ; as, 

Almighty Father, these 
Are but the varied God. The rolling year 
Is full of thee. Forth in the pleasing spring 
Thy beauty walks, thy tenderness and love. 
Wide flush the fields ; the softening air is balm ; 
Echo the mountains round ; the forest smiles ; 
And every sense and every heart is joy. — Boyd. 

I have enough, O God ! My heart to-night 
Runs over with its fullness of content ; 
And as I look out on the fragrant stars, 
And from the beauty of the night take in 
My priceless portion — yet myself no more 
Than in the universe a grain of sand — 
I feel His glory who could make a world, 
Yet in the lost depths of the wilderness 
Leave not a flower unfinish'd ! — Willis. 
12 



254 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 



RHYME. 

Poetry, in which there is a correspondence of sounds 
in the terminating words of two or more successive or 
alternate lines, as well as a measured arrangement of the 
words, is called rhyme ; as, 

The breeze has swelled the whitening sail, 
The blue waves curl beneath the gale, 
And, bounding with the wave and wind, 
We leave Old England's shores behind — 
Leave behind our native shore, 
Homes, and all we loved be/ore. — Upham. 

O Thou, to whom in ancient time 

The lyre of Hebrew bards was strung, 

"Whom kings adored in song sviblime, 

And prophets praised with glowing tongue. 

[Pierpont. 

VERSIFICATION. 

The act, art, and practice of arranging a number and 
variety of syllables into poetical lines or verses, accord- 
ing to certain laws, is Versification ; which is the result 
of art, labor, and rule, rather than of invention, or the 
fire of genius. It consists in adjusting the long and 
short syllables, and forming feet into a harmonious line 
or verse according to measure, etc. 

A Poetic Line, or Verse, consists of a certain number of ac- 
cented and unaccented syllables, arranged into a Couplet or 
Distich, a Triplet, a Stanza, or an Ode, etc. 

A Couplet or Distich is two Poetic lines or verses taking 
together, that make complete sense and rhyme with each 
other. 



PROSODY — VERSIFICATION. 255 

Maud Muller, on a summer's day, 
Kaked the meadow sweet with hay. 

Beneath her torn hat glowed the wealth 
Of simple beauty and rustic health. 

Singing, she worked, and her merry glee, 

The mock-bird echoed from his tree. — J. G. Whittier. 

O, see what wonders meet our eyes! 

Another land, and other skies! 

Columbian hills have met our view ! 

Adieu ! Old England's shores, adieu ! 
Here, at length, our feet shall rest, 
Hearts be free and homes be blessed. — Upham. 

A Triplet consists of three lines or verses rhyming ; as, 



Our land's a shelter for the free — 
The home, the port of Libert- 
It long has been, and still shall 
Till time will end. 



- 1 

I be J 



To yon bright regions let your faith ascend, 
Prepare to join your dearest infant friend 
In pleasures without measure, without end. 

P. Wheatley. 

Epoue is any little verse or verses following one or more 
great ones; as, 

Fair Ellen was long the delight of the young; 

No damsel with her could compare ; 
Her charms were the theme of the heart and the tongue, 
And bards without number, in ecstacies, sung 

The beauties of Ellen the fair. — W. Allston. 

Our fathers crossed the ocean's wave 

To seek this shore ; 
They left behind the coward slave 
To welter in his living grave ;— 
With hearts unbent and spirits brave, 

They sternly bore 
Such toils as meaner souls had quelled ; 
But souls like these, such toils impelled 

To soar. 



256 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Hemistich is half a poetic verse or line, or a verse not com- 
pleted. 

A Stanza is a combination of several lines or verses, con- 
nected with each other, and ending with a full pause ; con- 
stituting a regular division of a poem or song. The number 
of lines in stanzas of different poems, etc., vary according to 
the arrangement and facy of the poet. 

The Judge looked back as he climbed the hill, 
And saw Maud Muller standing still. — Whittier. 

My soul, a hymn of evening praise 
. To God, thy kind preserver, raise, 
Whose hand, this day, hath guarded, fed, 
And thousand blessings round thee shed. — L. Frisbie. 

Gay, guiltless pair, 
What seek ye from the fields of heaven ? 

Ye have no need of prayer, 
Ye have no sins to be forgiven. — C. Sprague. 

From every place below the skies, 

The grateful song, the fervent prayer — 
The incense of the heart — may rise 

To Heaven, and find acceptance there. — Pierpont. 

To prayer ! to prayer ! — for the morning breaks, 

And earth in her Maker's smile awakes. 

His light is on all, below and above — 

The light of gladness, and life, and love. 

Oh ! then, on the breath of this early air, 

Send upward the incense of grateful prayer. — H. Ware. 

Though clad in winter's gloomy dress, 

All Nature's works appear, 
Yet other prospects rise to bless 

The new returning year : 
The active sail again is seen 

To greet our western shore ; 
Gay plenty smiles, with brow serene, 

And wars distract no more. — P. Freneau. 



PROSODY — VERSIFICATION. 25? 

The Spring's scented buds all around me are swelling ; 

There are songs in the stream, there is health in the gale ; 
A sense of delight in each bosom is dwelling, 

As float the pure day-dreams o'er mountain and vale; 
The desolate reign of Old Winter is broken, 

The verdure is fresh upon every tree ; 
Of Nature's revival the charm — and a token 

Of love, Oh thou Spirit of Beauty ! to thee.— W. G. Clark. 

An Ode is a Poetical composition proper to be set to music 
or sung; generally consisting of unequal verses or stanzas, 
arranged in strophes, antestrophes ) and epodes ; as, 

Here, say old men, the Indian Magi made 
Their spells by moonlight ; or beneath the shade 
That shrouds sequestered rock, or dark'ning glade, 

Or tangled dell. 
Here Philip came, and Miantonimo, 
And asked about their fortunes long ago. 
As Saul to Endor, that her witch might show 

Old Samuel. Brainard. 

SHAKESPEARE ODE. 

God of the glorious Lyre! 
Whose notes of old on lofty Pindus rang, 

While Jove's exulting choir 
Caught the glad echoes and responsive sang — 

Come ! bless the service and the shrine 

We consecrate to thee and thine. 

Fierce from the frozen north, 
When Havoc led his legions forth, 
O'er Learning's sunny grove the dark destroyers spread : 
In dust the sacred statue slept, 
Fair Science round her altars wept, 
And Wisdom cowled his head. — Sprague. 



258 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

An Epigram is a short Poem treating only of one thing, and 
ending with some lively, ingenious and natural thought; as, 

ON AN ILL-READ LAWYER. 

An idle attorney besought a brother 

Por "something to read — some novel or other, 

That was really fresh and new." 
"Take Chitty!" replied his legal friend, 
"There isn't a book that I could lend 
"Would prove more novel to you!" — J. G. Saxe. 

A REVOLUTIONARY HERO. 

Old Joe is gone, who saw hot Percy goad 

His slow artillery up the Concord road, 

A tale which grew in wonder year by year; 

As every time he told it, Joe drew near 

To the main fight, till faded and grown gray, 

The original scene to bolder tints gave way; 

Then Joe had heard the foe's scored double-quick 

Beat on stove drum with one uncaptured stick, 

And, ere death came the lengthening tale to lop, 

Himself had fired, and seen a red-coat drop. 

Had Joe lived long enough, that scrambling fight; 

Had squared more nearly to his sense of right, 

And vanquished Perry, to complete the tale, 

Had hammered stone for life in Concord jail. 

J. R. Lowell, 

Poetic Peet or Measure. — A Line of Poetry may be 
divided into portions or divisions, each consisting of two or 
three syllables, combined according to accent ; as, 
Arise, | my soul ! | with rap | ture rise, 

And,; filled | with love | and fear, | adore 
The aw | ful Sov | 'reign of | the skies, 

Whose mer | cy lends | me one | day more. 



PROSODY — VERSIFICATION. 259 

Geehale went | to his tent, | and lay down | in despair ; 
He did paint | himself black | and did sev | er his hair ; 
He did set | on the shore | where the hur | rieane blows, 
And reveal to the god of the tempest his woes ; 
He did weep for a season, with bitterness fed, 
For his kindred were gone to the hills of the dead ; 
They had died, not by hunger, or lingering decay, 
But the Steele of the white man had swept them away. 

In Versification an accented syllable is with few exceptions 
accounted long ; and the unaccented syllable short. The accent 
( 7 ) following a vowel, or at the close of a syllable, shows it to 
be accented ; as, Vow 7 el, syllable. Or a droit (-) over a sylla- 
ble shows it to be accented — and a breve ( w ) marks an unac- 
cented syllable. 

"When monosyllables are alone, they are regarded as being 
without accent, but when placed in lines of poetry they are 
given accent, either long or short, as the measure of the poetic 
composition may require. 

Why gaze ye on my hory hairs, ye children young and gay ? 
Your locks 7 , beneath 7 the blast 7 of cares 7 , will bleach 7 as white 7 
as they 7 . — Mrs. L. H. Sigourney. 



METER. 

The Meter or Measure of Poetry is the harmony 
of Verses, consisting in the proper distribution of the 
long and short syllables ; with suitable pauses, render- 
ing them musical to the ear, by the order and quantity 
of their syllables constituting feet ; the numeric names 
of the meter always describing the number of feet to 
the measure ; as, 



260 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

A Line consisting of one foot, is called Mo-nom'-e-ter ; of two 
feet, Dim'e-ter ; of three feet, Trim'e-ter ; of four feet, Te- 
tram'e-ter; of jffotf feet, Pen-tarn' 'e-ter ; of six feet, i/e#- 
am/e-ter ; of sevew feet, Hep-t am/ e-ter ^ etc. 

Stanzas of four lines, having four feet in the first and 
third, and three feet in the second and fourth, are called com- 
mon meter ; 

The moon 7 | is up 7 ! | How calm 7 | and slow 7 ! 

She wheels 7 | above 7 | the hill 7 ! 
The wea | ry winds | forget | to blow, 

And all | the world | lies still. — Peabody. 

The earth has fallen cold and deep 

Above his narrow bier ; 
No wintry winds can break his sleep, 

No thunders reach his ear. 

Stanzas of four lines, the third having four feet and the 
others three, are called short metre ; 

There come 7 , | my love 7 | ly bride 7 , 

And come 7 , | my child 7 | of woe \ 
Since we 7 have nought on earth 7 beside 7 , 

"What mat 7 ter where 7 we go 7 ? — A. Graham. 

When the great Master spoke, 

He touched his withered eyes, 
And, at one gleam, upon him broke 

The glad earth and the skies. — E. Post. 

Stanzas of four lines, each containing four feet, are called 
long meter. 

The per 7 | feet world 7 | by Ad 7 | am trod 7 
Was the 7 | first tern 7 | pie built 7 | by God 7 ; 
His fi 7 at laid 7 the cor 7 ner stone 7 , 
And heaved 7 its piFlars one 7 by one 7 . — Willis. 



PROSODY — METER. 261 

Waen winter winds are piercing chill, 

And through the white-thorn blows the gale, 
With solemn feet I tread the hill, 
That over-brows the lonely vale. — Lonfellow. 
When the Lines in a Stanza, or any poetic composition, are 
full or exact in measure, having a complete number of sylla- 
bles, without defect or superfluity, each line or verse is called 
A-cat-a-lec-tic ; as, 

We will | not sleep, | our sun | shines bright, 

And cloud | less is | our day; | 
All past j and pres | ent joys | unite, 

To cheer | us on | our way. 

When on thy bosom I recline, 
Enraptured still to call thee mine, 

To call thee mine for life, 
I glory in the sacred ties 
Which modern wits and fools despise, 

Of husband and of wife. — Lindley Murray. 
Babe of the manger ! can it be ? 

Art thou the Son of God ? 
Shall subject nations bow the knee, 
And kings obey thy nod ? 
Shall thrones and monarchs prostrate fall. 
Before the tenant of a stall ? — N. H. Carter. 
When a Line in any Poetic compostion wants a syllable at 
the end, or terminating in an imperfect foot, or its measure 
defective, it is called Cat-a-lec / tic ; as, 

O give ye praise unto the Lord, 

All nations that be ; 
Likewise, ye people all, accord 

His name to magnify. 
2. For great to us-ward ever is 

His loving kindness: 
His truth endures for evermore. 

The Lord O do ye bless. — Psalms 11 7. 



262 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

When a Line in Poetry has a syllable or more beyond the 
regular and just measure it is called Hy-per-cat-a-lec-tic, or 
Hyper'me-ter ; as, 

They sung | that by | his na | tive bowers 

He stood in the last moon | of flowers. — Longfellow. 

But can | it be | that Power \ divine, 
Whose throne is light's unbounded blaze, 

While countless worlds and angels join 
To swell | the glo | rious song | of praise. 

Dividing a verse, or any Poetic composition, into feet is 
called Scanning. 

The time occupied in pronouncing a syllable is the Quantity 
of the syllable. A long syllable has the Quantity of two 
short ones ; as, In-ter-vene, etc. 

Feet in Poetry — used for the rythmical division of 
verse, etc., have been divided into eight kinds, four of 
two syllables, and four of three syllables ; as follows : 
Of two syllables — Tro'chee, I-am'bic, or I-am'bus, 
Spon'dee, Pyr'rhic. Of three syllables — An'a-pest, 
Dac'tyl, Am'phi-brach, and Tri'brach. 

A Tkochee contains two syllables, the first long and the 
second short; marked with the Broil and Breve, or else the 
Acute accent; as, Boldness, graceful, no'ble, etc. 

Iambus is a foot consisting of two syllables, the first short 
and the last long ; as, Betray confess*, delight, etc. 

Spondee is a poetic foot of two long syllables ; as, Pale boy, 
vile' beast', well done, etc. 



PROSODY — TROCHAIC VERSE. 263 

Pyrrhic consists of two short syllables ; as, On, it, etc. 

• Anapest is a Poetic foot consisting of three syllables, the 
first two short and the last long ; as, Ac-qui-esce, coun-ter-vaiV ', 
insecure, etc. 

Dactyl is a Poetic foot consisting of three syllables, the 
first long and the others short ; as, Du-rable, lafbor-er, 
reg-u-lar, etc. 

Amphibrach is a foot of three syllables, the middle one long 
the first and last short ; as, A-bun-dant, de-ter-mine, en-no-bling. 

Tribrach is a poetic foot of three short syllables ; as, {Ad-) 
mi-ra-ble, etc. 

The Trochaic, Iambic, Anapestic, and Dactylic, are princi- 
ple feet in Poetic composition, whole poems being altogether or 
at least chiefly formed from them. The Spondeeic, Pyrrhic, 
Amphibrach, and Tribrach feet are secondary, they never 
form the principle part of Poems, but are merely mixed with 
the primary feet for the sake of varying the measure and giv- 
ing variety to verse, etc. 



TROCHAIC VERSE. 

Verses consisting of Trochees or Trochaic meas- 
ure always have the accent placed on the first, and all 
odd syllables, as follows : 

One Trochee, or Monometer, 

Changing, Hearing, Staying, 

Banging. Fearing, Playing. 



264 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Two Trochees, or Dimeter. 

Charms trans | porting, Sweet 7 the | pleasure. 

Fancy | viewing, Wishes | rising, 

Pleasures courting. Thoughts surprising, 

Joys ensuing. Kich the treasure. 

Three Trochees, or Trimeter. 



Vainly | some are | scorning — 

Oth / ers | rich 7 a | dorn / ing 

Us, when | we are | mourning. J (I, 



. J (I. O.O. F.) 



Four Trochees, or Tetrameter. 

Bright the | moon o'er yonder | mountain, 
Maids 7 are | sit 7 ting | by 7 the | fountain. 
Bound a | holy | calm dif | fusing, 
Love of peace and lonely musing. 

Five Trochees, or Pentameter. (Little used.) 

All that | walk on | foot or | ride in | buggies, 
For 7 ward | fol 7 low | close 7 ly | the 7 pro | ces 7 sion. 

Six Trochees, or Hexameter. 

By a | fountain | sat a | female | faintly | weeping, 
H Say 7 ing, | fa 7 ther, | O 7 how | cru 7 el | to 7 my | lov 7 er! 
Dearest | lover !" | There she | sat, still [ downward | gazing 
Thus repeating, " Heart is broken, can't recover! 
Heart is broken, can't recover ! can't recover ! " 

By affixing a long syllable to each Trochaic measure 
it becomes Hypercatalectic or Hypervnetev, as follows : 



PROSODY — TROCHAIC VERSE. 265 

Trochaic Hyper -monometer . 

Let it — bound, Tumult | cease 7 , 

On the | ground. Sink to | peace. 

Hyper -dimeter. 

In the | rhymes of | old, She is | young and | gay/ 
Poets | gravely | told. Making | much dis | play. 

Hyper -trimeter. 

Model | of thy | parent | dear, 

Bliss in | vain from | earth is | brought 7 ! 

Hyper -tetrameter. 

In a | meadow | men were | mowing | grass, 
And us | boys were | all a | raking | hay 7 . 

Hyper-pentameter ■ 

I am | weary | of this | musing, | forcing | rhyme, 

Without | measure, | without | meaning, | thought sub | lime. 

Hyper-hexameter. 

Mostly | mourning | was at | meeting | over | Brandy | wine. 

The following Synoptical table will present a view of the 
different Trochaic measures with the hyper catalectics long syl- 
lable affixed to each measure. 



1 Brandy 

2 Over | brandy 

3 Meeting | over | brandy 

4 Was at | meeting | over | brandy 

5 Mourning | was at | meeting | over | brandy 

6. Mostly | mourning | was at | meeting | over | brandy 



wine, 
wine, 
wine, 
wine, 
wine, 
wine. 



266 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 



IAMBIC VERSE. 266 

In Poetry, when the accent will fall on even syllables, 
it is of Iambic verse, belonging to the following 
meter : 

One Iambus or Monometer. 



Content, 
Repent. 


How bright 7 , Deep thought, 
The light 7 . They sought. 


Two 


Iambuses or 


Iambic Dimeter. 


The moiin | tains in 
their pla | ces stood — 
The sea — | the sky — 
and "all | was good ;" 


And | when 7 its first 7 
pure prais 7 se | rang 7 , 
The " mor 7 | ning stars 7 
togeth 7 | er sang 7 ." 



Lord, 'tis not ours to make the sea, 

And earth, and sky, a house for thee ; 

But in thy sight our offering stands — 

A humbler temple, "made with hands." — Willis. 

Three Iambuses or Iambic Trimeter. 

Sweet Sab | bath of | the year, 
While eve | ning lights | decay, 

Thy parting steps we hear 
From earth stealing away. 

Amid thy silent bowers, 
We sad, but sweetly dwell, 

Where leaves and drooping flowers 
Around us breathe farewell. 



PROSODY — IAMBIC VERSE. 26T 

Along 7 | thy sun 7 | set skies 7 

Their glo / | ries melt 7 | in shade 7 , 

And like 7 the things 7 we prize 7 
Seem love 7 lier as 7 they fade 7 . 

A deep and crimson streak 

Thy dying leaves disclose; 
As on Consumption's cheek 

'Mid ruin blooms the rose. — Autumn. 

Four Iambuses or Iambic Tetrameter. 

When Free | dom from | her moiin | tain height 

Unfurl' d | her stan | dard to | the air ! 
She tore the azure robe of night ! 

And set the stars of glory there ! 

O Thou ! to whom 7 in an 7 cient time 7 
The lyre 7 of He 7 brew bards 7 was strung 7 , 

Whom kings adored in song sublime, 

And Prophets praised with glowing tongue 

Not now, on Zion's height alone, 

Thy favored worshipers may dwell, 
Nor where, at sultry noon, thy Son 

Sat weary, by the Patriarch's well. 

Five Iambuses or Iambic Pentameter. 

When I | look round, | and see | the love, | the care, 
Of bound | less good | ness fill the smiling land, 

Existence spread through ocean, earth, and air, 
And beauty lavished with exhaustless hand. 



Night seals 7 | in sleep 7 | the wide 7 | crea 7 | tion fair 7 
And all 7 is peaceful but 7 the brow 7 of care 7 . 
Again gay Phoebus, as the day before, 
Wakes every eye, save what shall wake no more; 



268 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Again the face of nature is renewed, 

Which still appears harmonious, fair, and good. 

May grateful strains salute the smiling morn 

Before its beams the eastern hills adorn ! 

Shall day to day and night to night conspire 

To show the goodness of the Almighty Sire ? 

This mental voice shall man regardless hear, 

And never, never, raise the filial prayer ? — P. Wheatley. 

Obs. — Five feet Iambic, is called Heroic verse, either with or 
without rhyme. The Elegiac stanza is of this measure, con- 
sisting of four lines rhyming alternately. This measure is 
also much used in blank verse, such as Milton's Paradise Lost, 
Young's Night Thoughts, etc. 

Six Iambuses or Hexameter. 

Nor weilr | my hours | away, | but seek | the her | mits cell ; 
'Tis he my doubt can clear, perhaps my care dispel. 

His heart 7 | is sad 7 , | his hope 7 | is gone 7 , | his light 7 j is 

passed 7 ; 
He sits and mourns, in silent grief, the lingering day. 

Iambic Hexameter is commonly called Alexandrian measure, 
and sometimes when it is introduced sparingly into heroic 
rhyme it produces an agreeable variety ; as, 

The sees shall waste, the skies in smoke decay, 

Rocks fall to dust, and mountains melt away ! 

But fix'd his word, his saving power remains; 

Thy realm/ forev'er lasts', thy own' Mesi'ah regns'! 

Seven Iambvses or Heptameter. 

When all | thy mer | cies, O | my God, | my ris | ing soul | 

surveys, 
Transported with 7 the view 7 , I'm lost 7 in won 7 der, love 7 , and 

praise 7 . 



PROSODY — IAMBIC VERSE. 269 

Obb. — Iambic-heptameter is mostly divided into two lines, 
the first line containing four feet, and second three; called 
common meter ; as, 

That there 7 is not 7 a God 7 the fool 7 

Doth in 7 his heart 7 conclude 7 : 
They are corrupt, their works are vile; 

Not one of them doth good. — Ps. xiv- 

ETo more the vales, no more the plains 

An iron harvest yield ; 
Peace guards our doors, impels our swains 

To till the grateful field: 
From distant climes, no longer foes, 

(Their years of misery past,) 
Nations arrive, to find repose 

In these domains at last. 

And, if a more deligtful .scene 

Attracts the mortal eye, 
Where clouds nor darkness intervene, 

Behold, aspiring high, 
On freedom's soil those fabrics plann'd, 

On virtue's basis laid, 
That make secure our native land, 

And prove our toils repaid. — Freneau. 

Obs. 2. — In Long meter, each line contains an Iambic-tetra- 
meter ; as, 

The perfect world by Adam trod 
"Was the first temple — built by God ; 
His fiat laid the corner stone, 
And heaved its pillows, one by one. 

*12 



270 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

He hung its starry roof on high — 

The broad illimitable sky ; 

He spread its pavement, green and bright, 

And curtained it with morning light. — Willis. 

"Father of Lakes I" thy waters bend. 

Beyond the eagle's utmost view, 
He, throned in heaven, sees thee send 

Back to the sky its world of blue. 

Boundless and deep, the forests weave 

Their twilight shade thy borders o'er, 
And threatening cliffs, like giants, heave 

Their rugged forms along thy shore. — S. G. Goodrich. 

Obs. 3. — In Short meter, the first, second, and fourth lines, 
contain each, an Iambic-trimeter , the third, four Iambuses ; as, 

If he who made all things, 

And rules them, is our own, 
Then every grief and trial brings 

Us nearer to his throne. 

Then come, my gentle bride, 

And come, my child of love; 
What if we've nought on earth beside ? 

Our portion is above. 

Sweep, mighty ocean, sweep ; 

Ye winds, blow foul or fair ; 
Our God is with us on the deep, 

Our home is every where.— S. Graham. 

Obs. 4. — Each species of Iambic verse may have one addi- 
tional short syllable; thus — 

Dimeter. — Upon 7 | a moun' | tain; 
Beside 7 a fountain. 



PROSODY — IAMBIC VERSE. 2^1 

Trimeter. — Tears fell | when you | were dy | ing, 
There should | a wreath | be wo | ven — 
Who shared thy joy and sorrow, etc. 

The seven forms of Iambic measure are contained in the fol- 
lowing table : 

1 The maid. 

2 To win | the maid. 

3 He came | to win | the maid. 

4 From far | he came | to win | the maid. 

5 When first | from far | he came | to win | the maid. 

6. He was | when first | from far | he came | to win | the maid. 

7. So gay | he was | when first | from far | he came | to win 

| the maid. 

Every variety of Iambic measure, and Iambic hipermeter 
may be learned from the following table. And also Poetic 
repetition, transposition, etc., by changing and interchanging 
the different parts of the two divisions of the table; and read- 
ing from various points, (in reading backward observe the 
natural order of every foot to itself,) the natural variety of 
different measures for composing stanzas, etc., will readily 
suggest themselves. 

1. So gay | he was | when first | from far | he came | to win | the maid. 

2. So gay | he was | when first | from far j he came | to win, 

3. So gay | he was | when first | from far | he^came, 1. The maiden. 

4. So gay | he was | when first | from far, 2. To win | the maid en. 

5. So gay | he was | when first, 3. He came | to win | the maid en. 

6. So gay | he was, 4. From far | he came | to win | the maid en. 

7. So gay, 5. When first | from far | he came | to win | the maid en. 

6. He was | when first | from far 1 he came | to win | the maid en. 
7. So gay | he was | when first | from far | he came | to win | the maid en. 



272 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 



ANAPESTIC VERSE. 

In all Anapestic measures the accent is placed on 
the third syllable, as follows : 

One Anapestic, or Monometer. 

But too far, On the land 7 , Swift we go, 

Each proud star. Let me stand. O'er the snow. 

Two Anapests, or Dimeter. 

Like a beau | tiful dream, When I look 7 | on my boys 7 

By the mead | ow and stream. They renew all my joys. 

Three Anapests, or Trimeter. 

"How fair day | ye green earth | and ye skies, 
All quite gay 7 | with the broad 7 | setting sun 7 . 

Four Anapests, or Tetrameter. 

May I gov | ern my pas | sions with ab | solute sway, 
And grow wis 7 | er and bet 7 | ter as life 7 | wears away 7 . 

Of the Anapestic measures Dimeter and Tetrameter 
sometimes admit of an additional short syllable. 

Hyper -dimeter. 

In the walk | by the bow | er, 
See the pret | ty red flow | er. 



PROSODY — DACTYLIC VERSE. 213 

Hyper-tetrameter. 

On the warm | cheek of youth | smiles and ros | es are 
blend | ing. 

Obs. 1. — The first foot of an Anapestic line or verse may 
be an Iambic monometer ; as, 

O had | I the wings | of a dove, 
How soon | would I taste | you again. 

Obs. 2.— The Anapestic trimeter is a very pleasing measure, 
and is much used in both solemn and cheerful subjects, but it 
seldom has an additional syllable. 



DACTYLIC VERSE. 

In pure Dactylic verse the accent is placed on the 
first syllable of each foot. When one of the final short 
syllables is omitted the rhyme is double ; when both 
are omitted it is single. Dactylic with single rhyme, 
is the same as Anapestic without its initial short sylla- 
bles. Measures of Dactylic are little used ; and when 
employed are seldom perfectly regular. 

Dactylic-monometer . 

Tyranny, O'ver us, 

Cheerfully, Fearfully. 

Dactylic-dimeter. 

Come thou Al | mighty" King, Not 7 of earth | now' it brings, 
Help us thy | name to sing. Joy of celestial things. 



2? 4 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Dactylic-trimeter. 

March to the | dread battle | fair Leslie, 
Wearing a | way 7 in his | youth'fulness. 
Lovelyness, | beauty, and | truthfulness. 

.Dactylic Tetrameter. 

Noble and | rare was her | place in so | ciety, 
Grace / ful and | artless, she | moved 7 with pro | pri'ety 
Modest, sin | cere, and a | pattern of | piety, 
Friends were not wanting to cherish her memory, 



] 



Each of the Dactylic measures will take an additional long 
syllable, thus becoming hyper-meter ; as — 

Hyper-monometer. 

Over the | hill, 
Close by a | mill. 

Hyper -dimeter. 

Valleys of | sorrow were | here, 
Fever and | ague all | year, 
Comfortless, homeless, we came, 
Trusting to live on wild game. 

Hyper-trimeter. 

Time is still j passing a | way on swift | wing, \ 
Here I am | idle not | doing a | thing, I 

But trying Dactylic measures to sing. J 

J. P. 

Dactylic verse seldom ends with a dactyl ; it is generally fin- 
ished with a long syllable, and sometimes a trochee ; as in the 
lines following : — 



PROSODY — DACTYLIC VERSE. 2T5 

Brightest and | best of the | sons of the | morning, 
Dawn on our | darkness and | lend us thine | aid. 

The line following is an example of dactyls and spondees : — 

Green is the | meadow, | tall is the | wild grass | growing by | 
the run. 

Pure Dactylic hexameter is contained in the following ex- 
ample : — 

Over the | valley, with | speed like the | wind all the | steeds 
were a | galloping. 

Trochee. Prophet | of plagues | forev | er bod | ing ill ! 

Dactyl. Murmermg | and with | him fled | the shades | 
night. 

Anapest. Before | all tern — pies the up | right heart | and 
pure. 

Pyrrhic. Brought death | into | the world | and all | our woe. 

Tribrach. And thun | ders down | impet | uous to | the plain. 

The following lines present a pleasing variety of measures 
for intermingling Anapests and Iambuses ; 

u l come 7 , | I come 7 ! | ye have called | me long 7 ; 
I come 7 | o'er the moun | tains with light | and song 7 ! 
Ye may trace | my steps 7 | o'er the wak | ening earth, 
By the winds | which tell 7 | of the vi | olets birth, 
By the prim | rose stars 7 | of the shad | owy grass, 
By the green | leaves op 7 | ening 7 | as I pass." 



POETIC PAUSES. 

Beside the Sentiential pauses, those used to mark 
reading for the understanding, common punctuation, 
there are other pauses required in Poetic composition 



276 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

to give proper effect to the measure or movement of 
the verse in time. The Final and Cesural, and to 
these may be added a JDemicesural pause for the use 
of Poetry. 

The Final Pause is required at the close of every poetic line, 
even when not closed with a sentential pause ; when this is so, 
the pause consists in a brief suspension of the vojce, without 
change in pitch or tone. A sentential pause at the close of a 
line supercedes and takes the place of the final pause. 

The Cesural Pause is one to which no rule can be given. 
In reading Poetry well it will always suggest itself, generally 
near the middle of lines of some length, but sometimes nearer 
the beginning, and sometimes nearer the close. It does not 
often occur in very short lines. 

The Demicestjral Pause, in connection with the other two, 
is required to give full effect or force to the expression, etc. 

The following lines afford examples of the Cesural pause (") 
and the Demicesural pause ( / ), as they occur in various parts 
of the lines, sometimes in the middle of a foot, but never in 
the middle of a word : — 

And now they join" in frolic play, 
And all are noisy/ 7 all are gay, 
And health" and innocency 7 seek 
In every plump" and rosy cheek. 

An Bethany's palm-trees" in beauty 7 still throw 
Their shadows 7 at noon" on the ruins below; 
But where are the sisters" that hasten' d to greet. 
The lowly Eedeemer" and sit at his feet. 



PROSODY — PAUSES — CADENCE. 211 

Far away 7 from the hill-side" the lake 7 and the hamlet. 
The rock 7 and the brook 77 and yon meadow 7 so gay. 

O, listen, man ! 
A voice 77 within us speaks 7 that startling word, 
" Man 77 , thou shalt never die ! " 

And thy faint spirit 77 drink the cooling stream, 
And thine eyes gladden 77 with the playing beam. 

When olive leaves 7 were twinkling 77 in every wind that blew, 
There sat, beneath 7 the pleasant shade 77 , a damsel 7 of Peru : 
Betwixt the slender boughs 77 , as they opened 7 to the air, 
Came 7 glimpses of her snowy arm 77 and 7 of her glossy hair; 
And sweetly rang 7 her silver voice 77 amid 7 that shady nook, 
As from the shrubby glen 7 is heard 77 the sound 7 of hidden brook. 

Once' upon a midnight dreary", while I pondered' weak and weary, 
Over many a quaint' and curious volume" of forgotten love — 
While I nodded' nearly napping", suddenly' there came a tapping, 
As some one' gently rapping", rapping' at my chamber-door — 
1 'Tis some visitor',' I muttered", tapping' at my chamber-door — 
Only this" and nothing more.' 

Ah ! distinctly' I remember" it was a bleak December, 
And each separate' dying ember" wrought its ghost' upon the floor. 
Eagerly' I wished the morrow", vainly I had sought to borrow 
From my books' surcease of sorrow" — sorrow' for the lost Lenore — 
For the rare' and radient maiden" whom the angels' name Lenore — 
Nameless here" forevermore. 

Edgar A. Pok. 

Cadence. — In reading, speaking, or reciting, a certain tone 
is taken, which is called the key, or key-note, on which most of 
the words are pronounced, and the fall of the voice below this 
tone is called cadence. The full cadence takes place at the end 
of the sentence. 

13 



278 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Propriety. — In the composition of poetry propriety re- 
quires adaptation of language and sentiment to the object of 
the Poem. The diction should be pure, accurate, and elevated, 
and the ideas appropriate, glowing, and sentimental Etc. 



DIFFERENT KINDS OF POETRY. 

The varieties of Poetry may be arranged under the 
following heads, viz : Didactic, Descriptive, Dramatic, 
Elegiac, Epic or Heroic, Lyric, Pastoral, Satiric 
Poetry, and the Sonnet, together with Spiritual Songs 
and Psalms. 

Descriptive Poetry represents beautifully pictures 
of nature, art, etc., exciting in the mind of the reader a 
correct and vivid idea of the objects described, so as to 
communicate all the information and pleasure which 
might be received from an actual survey of the objects. 
The great art in composing poetry of this kind is not to 
specify every minute particular, but to select the most 
striking and picturesque circumstances, which will make 
the deepest impression on the mind of the beholder. 
Mostly poetry abounds in description, but if it has some 
other marked prominent characteristic, it maj'- not be ar- 
ranged under this class or division. 

AMERICAN WINTER. 

"When doubling clouds the wintry skies deform, 
And, wrapt in vapor, comes the roaring storm; 
"With snows surcharged, from tops of mountains sails, 
Loads leafless trees, and fills the whiten' d vales, 
"When Desolation strips the faded plains, 
Then tyrant Death o'er vegetation reigns; 



PROSODY — DESCRIPTIVE POETRY. 219 

The birds of heaven to other climes repair, 

And deepening glooms invade the turbid air — 

Nor then, unjoyous, winter's rigors come, 

But find them happy and content with home ; 

Their granaries fill'd — the task of culture past, 

Warm at their fire, they hear the howling blast, 

While pattering rain and snow, or driving sleet, 

Rave idly loud, and at their window beat; 

Safe from rage, regardless of its roar, 

In vain the tempest rattles at the door. 

'Tis then the time from hoarding cribs to feed 

The ox laborious, and the noble steed ; 

'Tis then the time to tend the bleating fold, 

To strew the litter, and to fence from cold. 

The cattle fed, the fuel piled within, 

At setting day the blissful hours begin. 

'Tis then, the sole owner of his little cot, 

The farmer feels his independent lot ; 

Hears, with the crackling blaze that lights the wall, 

The voice of gladness and of nature call ; 

Behold his children play, their mother smile, 

And taste with them the fruit of summers toil. 

From stormy heavens the mantling clouds unrolled, 

The sky is bright, the air serenely cold. 

The keen north-west, that heaps the drifted snows, 

For months entire o'er frozen regions blows ; 

Man braves his blast ; his gelid breath inhales, 

And feels more vigorous as the frost prevails. 

D. Humphreys. 

THE RELIGIOUS COTTAGE. 

See' st thou yon lonely cottage in the grove, 

With little garden neatly planned before, 
Its roof deep shaded by the elms above, 

Moss-grown, and decked with velvet verdure o'er? 

Go lift the willing latch — the scene explore — 
Sweet peace, and love, and joy, thou there shalt find; 

For there Religion dwells ; whose sacred lore 
Leaves the proud wisdom of the world behind, 
And pours a heavenly ray on every humble mind. 

When the bright morning gilds the eastern skies, 
Up springs the peasant from his calm repose ; 

Forth to honest toil he cheerful hies, 

And tastes the sweets of nature as he goes — 



280 AMERICAN GRAMMAR 

But first, of Sharon's fairest, sweetest rose, 
He breathes the fragrance, and pours forth the praise ; 

Looks to the source whence every blessing flows, 
Ponders the page which heavenly truth conveys, 
And to its Author's hand commits his future ways. 

Nok yet in solitude his prayers ascend ; 

His faithful partner and their blooming train, 
The precious word, with reverent minds, attend, 

The heaven-directed path of life to gain. 

Their voices mingle in the grateful strain — 
The lay of love and joy together sing, 

To Him whose bounty clothes the smiling plain, 
Who spreads the bounties of the blooming spring, 
And tunes the warbling throats that make the valleys ring. 

D. Huntington. 



Didactic Poetry gives precepts for the regulation of 
moral conduct ; adapted to teach ; containing doctrines, 
precepts, principles, rules, etc., of some art, science, or 
other branch of knowledge, intended to instruct the 
reader's mind, and improve it in knowledge, wisdom,, and 
in virtue. 

CLING TO THY MOTHER. 

Cling to thy mother; for she was the first 
To know thy being, and to feel thjr life; 

The hope of thee through many a pang she nurst; 
And when, 'midst anguish like the parting strife, 

Her babe was in her arms, the agony 

"Was all forgot, for bliss of loving thee. 

Be gentle to thy mother; long she bore 
Thine infant fretfulness and silly youth; 

Nor rudely scorn the faithful voice that o'er 

Thy cradle prayed, and taught thy lispings truth. 

Yes, she is old; yet on thine adult brow 

She looks, and claims thee as her child e'en now. 



PROSODY — DIDACTIC POETRY. 281 

Uphold thy mother; close to her warm heart 
She carried, fed thee, lulled thee to thy rest; 

Then taught thy tottering limbs their untried art, 
Exulting in the fledgling from her nest : 

And, now her steps are feeble, be her stay, 

Whose strength was thine in thy most feeble day. 

Cherish thy mother; brief perchance the time 
May be that she will claim the care she gave; 

Past are her hopes of youth, her harvest prime 
Of joy on earth ; her friends are in the grave : 

But for her children, she could lay her head 

Gladly to rest among her precious dead. 

Be tender with thy mother; words unkind, 
Or light neglect from thee, will give a pang 

To that fond bosom, where thou art enshrined 
In love unutterable, more than fang 

Of venomed serpent. Wound not that strong trust, 

As thou wouldst hope for peace when she is dust. 

mother mine! God grant I ne'er forget, 
Whatever be my grief, or what my joy, 

The unmeasured, unextinguishable debt 

I owe thy love; but make my sweet employ, 

Ever through thy remaining days to be 

To thee as faithful, as thou wert to me. 

George W. Bethune. 



Dramatic Poetry is a poem or composition as a 
picture representing human life, actions, manners, etc., 
founded on a regular plot or story, generally intended 
to be favorable to virtue, by presenting that which is 
criminal to detestation and punishment, and that which 
is ridiculous to laughter and contempt. 

A drama is generally fitted to be represented by ac- 
tion on the stage, etc. 



AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 



A SCENE FROM HAD AD. 



Tamar. I shudder, 
Lest some dark Minister be near us now. 

Hadad. You wrong them. They are bright Intelligences, 
Robbed of some native splendor, and cast down, 
J Tis true, from heaven; but not deformed and foul, 
Eevengeful, malice- working fiends, as fools 
Suppose. They dwell, like princes, in the clouds ; 
Sun their bright pinions in the middle sky ; 
Or arch their palaces beneath the hills, 
With stones inestimable studded so, 
That sun or stars were useless there. 

Tarn. Good heavens ! 

Had. He bade me look on rugged Caucasus, 
Crag piled on crag beyond the utmost ken, 
Naked, and wild, as if creation's ruins 
"Were heaped in one immeasurable chain 
Of barren mountains, beaten by the storms 
Of everlasting winter. But within 
Are glorious palaces, and domes of light, 
Irradiate halls, and colonnades, 
Vaults set with gems, the purchase of a crown, 
Blazing with lustre past the noon-tide beam, 
Or, with a milder beauty, mimicking 
The mystic signs of changeful Mazzaroth. 

Tarn. Unheard of splendor ! 

Had. There they dwell, and muse, 
And wander ; beings beautiful, immortal, 
Minds vast as heaven, capacious as the sky, 
Whose thoughts connect past, present, and to come, 
And glow with light intense, imperishable. 
Thus, in the sparry chambers of the sea 
And air-pavilions, rainbow tabernacles, 
They study Nature's secrets, and enjoy 
No poor dominion. 

Tarn. Are they beautiful, 
And powerful far beyond the human race ? 

Had. Man's feeble heart cannot conceive it. When 
The sage described them, fiery eloquence 
Flowed from his lips, his bosom heaved, his eyes 
Grew bright and mystical ; moved by the theme, 
Like one who feels a deity within. 

Tarn. Wondrous ! — What intercourse have they with men ? 



PROSODY — DRAMATIC POERTY. 283 

Had. Sometimes they deign to intermix with man, 
But oft with woman. 

Tarn. Hah ! with woman ? 

Had. She 
Attracts them with her gentler virtues, soft, 
And beautiful, and heavenly, like themselves. 
They have been known to love her with a passion 
Stronger than human. 

Tarn. That surpasses all 
You yet have told me. 

Had. This the sage affirms , 
And Moses, darkly. 

Tarn. How do they appear? 
How manifest their love ? 

Had. Sometimes 'tis spiritual, signified 
By beatific dreams, or more distinct 
And glorious apparition. — They have stooped 
To animate a human form, and love 
Like mortals. 

Tarn. Frightful to be so beloved ! 
Who could endure the horrid thought ! — What makes 
Thy cold hand tremble ? or is't mine 
That feels so deathy ? 

Had. Dark imaginations haunt me 
When I recall the dreadful interview. 

Tarn. O, tell them not — I would not hear them. 

Had. But why contemn a Spirit's love? so high, 
So glorious, if he haply deigned? — 

Tarn. Forswear 
My Maker ! love a Demon! 

Had. N— O, no— 
My thoughts but wandered — Oft, alas ! they wander. 

Tarn. Why dost thou speak so sadly now? — and lo ! 
Thine eyes are fixed again upon Arcturus. 
Thus ever, when thy drooping spirits ebb, 
Thou gazest on that star. Hath it the power 
To cause or cure the melancholy mood ? — 

\He appears lost in thought,'] 
Tell me, ascrib'st thou influence to the stars? 

Had. [starting.) The stars I What know'st thou of the 
stars ? 

Tarn. I know that they were made to rule the night. 

Had. Like palace lamps ! thou echoest well thy grandsire. 
Woman ! the stars are living, glorious, 
Amazing, infinite ! 



284 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Tarn. Speak not so wildly. — 
I know them numberless, resplendent, set 
As symbols of the countless, countless years 
That make eternity. 

Had. Eternity ! — 
Oh ! mighty, glorious, miserable thought \^- 
Had ye endured like those great sufferers, 
Like them, seen ages, myriad ages roll ; 
Could ye but look into the void abyss 
"With eyes experienced, unobscured by torments, — 
Then mightst thou name it, name it feelingly. 

Tarn. What ails thee, Hadad ? — draw me not so close. 
Had. Tamar! I need thy love — more than thy love — 
Tarn. Thy cheek is wet with tears. Nay, let us part — 
7 Tis late — I cannot, must not linger. 

[Breaks from him, and exit.] 
Had. Loved and abhorred ! — Still, still accursed ! — 
[He paces, twice or thrice, up and down with 
passionate gestures ; then turns his face to 
the sky, and stands a moment in silence.'] 
— Oh! where, 
In the illimitable space, in what 
Profound of untried misery, when all 
His worlds, his rolling orbs of light, that fill 
With life and beauty yonder infinite, 
Their radient journey run, for ever set, 
Where, where, in what abyss shall I be groaning ? 

[Exit] Hillhouse. 



Elegiac Poetry is a Poem without any affected 
elegancies, — of a mournful or plaintive character ; a 
funeral song ; a poem or song expressive of sorrow and 
lamentation, etc. 

DEATH OF THE FIRST BORN. 

Yotjng mother, he is gone ! 
His dimpled cheek no more will touch thy breast ; 

No more the music-tone 
Float from his lips, to thine all fondly pressed ; 
His smile and happy laugh are lost to thee; 
Earth must his mother and his pillow be. 



PROSODY — ELEGIAC POETRY. 285 

And from thy yearning heart, 
Whose inmost core was warm with love for him, 

A gladness must depart, 
And those kind eyes with many tears he dim; 
While lonely memories, an unceasing train, 
Will turn the raptures of the past to pain. 

Yet, mourner, while the day 
Bolls like the darkness of a funeral hy, 

And hope forbids one ray 
To stream athwart the great discolor' d sky, 
There breaks upon thy sorrow's evening gloom 
A trembling lustre from beyoud the tomb. 

'Tis from the better land ! 
There, bathed in radiance that around them springs, 

Thy loved one's wings expand; 
As with the choiring cherubim he sings, 
And all the glory of that God can see, 
Who said, on earth, to children, " Come to me." 

Mother, thy child is bless'd; 
And though his presence may be lost to thee, 

And vacant leave thy breast, 
And miss'd, a sweet load from thy parent knee; 
Though tones familiar from thine ear have pass'd, 
Thou' It meet thy first born with his Lord at last.— Clark. 

LINES ON THE DEATH OF DR. SEW ALL. 

Lo, here a man, redemed by Jesus' blood, 

A sinner once, but now a saint with God;* 

Behold, ye rich, ye poor, ye fools, ye wise, 

Nor let his monument your heart surprise. 

He sought the paths of piety and truth, 

By these made happy from his early youth ! 

In blooming years that grace divine he felt 

Which rescues sinners from the chains of guilt. 

Mourn him, ye indignant, whom he has fed, 

And henceforth seek, like him, for living bread — 

E'en Christ, the bread descending from above, 

And ask an interest in his saving love. 

Mourn him, ye youth, to whom he oft has told 

God's gracious wonders from the times of old. 

I, too, have cause this mighty loss to mourn, 

For he, my monitor, will not return. 

O when shall we to his blest state arrive? 

"When the same graces in our bosoms thrive. — Wheatley. 



286 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Epic or Heroic Poetry is a poem containing a brave 
or daring narrative — rehearsing some illustrious enter- 
prise, describing, in an elevated style, some great and 
important actions or events of some leading characters 
or illustrious personages, real or fictitious, or both; — also 
representing some single action, or series of actions and 
events, usually the achievements, exploits, and termina- 
tion of some distinguished hero ; — intended to stimu- 
late the morals, and affect the mind with the love of 
virtue. The matter of the poem includes the actions, 
fables, incidents, episodes, characters, morals, and ma- 
chinery. The form includes the manner of narration, 
the discourse introduced, descriptions, sentiments, style, 
versification, figures, and other ornaments. The end is 
to improve the morals, and to inspire a love of virtue, 
bravery, and illustrious actions, etc. 

THE DEATH OF WARREN. 

When the war-cry of Liberty rang through the land, 

To arms spra'ng our fathers the foe to withstand ; 

On old Bunker Hill their entrenchments they rear, 

When the army is joined by a young volunteer. 

{ Tempt not death ! ' cried his friends ; but he bade them 

good-bye, 
Saying, ' O ! it is sweet for our country to die ! ' 

The tempest of battle now rages and swells, 
'Mid the thunder of cannon, the pealing of bells ; 
And a light, not of battle, illumes yonder spire — 
Scene of woe and destruction ; — 'tis Charlestown on fire ! 
The young volunteer heedeth not the sad cry, 
But murmurs, ' 'Tis sweet for our country to die ! ' 

With trumpets and banners the foe draweth near: 
A volley of musketry checks their career ! 



PROSODY — EPIC POETRY. 287 

With the dead and the dying the hill-side is strown, 
And the shout through our lines is, ' The day is our own ! ' 
( Not yet," cries the young volunteer, ( do they fly ! 
Stand firm ! — it is sweet for our country to die ! ' 

Now our powder is spent, and they rally again ; — 

' Eetreat ! ' says our chief, ' since unarmed we remain ! ' 

But the young volunteer lingers yet on the field, 

Reluctant to fly, and disdaining to yield. 

A shot ! Ah ! he falls ! but his life's latest sigh 

Is, ( 'Tis sweet, O, 'tis sweet for our country to die !' 

And thus Warren fell ! Happy death ! noble fall ! 

To perish for country at Liberty's call ! 

Should the flag of invasion profane evermore 

The blue of our seafe or the green of our shore, 

May the hearts of our people reecho that cry, — 

"Tis sweet, O, 'tis sweet for our country to die! ' — Sargent. 



ON LAYING THE CORNER STONE OF THE BUNKER HILL 
MONUMENT. 

O, is not this a holy spot? 

'Tis the high place of Freedom's birth! 
God of our fathers! is it not 

The holiest spot of all the earth? 

Quenched is thy flame on Horeb's side; 

The robber roams o'er Sinai now; 
And those old men, thy seers, abide 

No more on Zion's mournful brow. 

But on this hill thou, Lord, hast dwelt, 
Since round its head the war-cloud curled. 

And wrapped our fathers, where they knelt 
In prayer and battle for a world. 

Here sleeps their dust : 'tis holy ground : 
And we, the children of the brave, 

From the four winds are gathered round, 
To lay our offering on their grave. 

Free as the winds around us blow, 
Free as the waves below us spread, 

We rear a pile, that long shall throw 
Its shadow on their sacred bed. 



288 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

But on their deeds no shade shall fall, 

While o'er their couch thy sun shall flame: 

Thine ear was bowed to hear their call, 

And thy right hand shall guard their fame. 

Pierpont. 



DEATH OF LIEUT. HENRY CLAY, AT BUENA VISTA. 

Most nobly he stood in the midst of the fight, 

With the flag of the west waving o'er him ; 
Its star-spangled folds were the pride of his sight 

With the foes of his country before him. 
Where the battle was fierce o'er the rugged ravine, 

He thought not once of pause or surrender ; 
But the foremost and first of his ranks he was seen, 

The nation's unshrinking defender. 

At wild Buena Vista the foe he had met, 

To contend for his country and glory ; 
And twice o'er the fight, ere the red sun was set, 

He had fell on the battle field gory. 
1 0, give to my father my weapons,' he cried; 

1 I have used them as duty commanded — 
1 Press ye on to the fight," he repeated, and died, 

As his soul for his country expanded. 

They buried him there on the field of the fray, 

With the funeral guns o'er him booming, 
To sleep till conducted in silence away, 

Where the soil of Kentucky was blooming. 
They mourn' d for the fallen at Ashland's retreat, 

On the joyless return of the morrow ; 
And the heart of the nation in unison beat 

With the throbbings of filial sorrow. 

His relics they bore from their war-crimson' d bed, 

That his bones might his birth-sod encumber ; 
And many a tear for the hero was shed 

O er the last hallow' d place of his slumber. 
An 'army of friends form'd his burial train, 

And with funeral garlands they crown'd him; 
And they laid him to rest, and they let him remain 

With the flag of his country around him. — T. G. Spear. 



PROSODY. 289 

Lyrio Poetry embraces every variety of poetic com- 
position that may be sung to the Lyre, Organ, etc. 
Such as songs composed on religious subjects— moral 
and philosophical odes, referring chiefly to virtue, friend- 
ship, and humanity — heroic odes, celebrating the actions, 
etc., of heroes and great men — festive and amorous 
odes, merely designed for pleasure, amusement, etc. 

TO MY WIFE. 



When on thy bosom I recline, 
Enraptured still to call thee mine. 

To call thee mine for life, 
I glory in the sacred ties, 
Which modern wits and fools despise, 

Of husband and of wife. 

One mutual flame inspires our bliss ; 
The tender look, the melting kiss, 

Even years have not destroyed; 
Some sweet sensation, ever new, 
Springs up and proves the maxim true, 

That love can ne'er be eloy'd. 



Have I a wish? — 'tis all for thee. 
Hast thou a wish? — 'tis all for me. 

So soft our moments move* 
That angels look with ardent gaze, 
Well pleased to see our happy days, 

And bid us live — and love. 



If cares arise — and cares will come— 
Thy bosom is my softest home, 

I'll lull me there to rest; 
And is there aught disturbs my fair? 
I'll bid her sigh out every care, 

And lose it in my breast. 



290 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Hate I a wish? — : tis all her own; 
All hers and mine are roll'd in one — 

Our hearts are so entwined, 
That, like the ivy round the tree, 
Bound up in closest amity, 

'Tis death to be disjoin'd. — Lindley Murray. 

Hebrew melody. — Jeremiah x. 17. 

From the hall of our fathers in anguish we fled, 
Nor again will its marble re-echo our tread, 
For the breath of the Siroc has blasted our name, 
And the frown of Jehovah has crushed us in shame. 

His robe was the whirlwind, his voice was the thunder, 
And earth, at his footstep, was riven asunder ; 
The mantle of midnight had shrouded the sky, 
But we knew where He stood by the flash of His eye. 

O Judah ! how long must thy weary ones weep, 
Far, far from the land where their forefathers sleep ; 
How long ere the glory that brightened the mountain 
"Will welcome the exile to Siloa's fountain ? 

Mrs. J. C. Brooks. 

SONG OF THE PILGRIMS. 

The breeze has swelled the whitening sail, 
The blue waves curl beneath the gale, 
And, bounding with the wave and wind, 
"We leave Old England's shores behind — 
Leave behind our native shore, 
Homes, -and all we loved before. 

The deep may dash, the winds may blow, 

The storm spread out its wings of wo, 

Till sailors' eyes can see a shroud 

Hung in the folds of every cloud; 
Still, as long as life shall last, 
Prom that shore we'll speed us fast. 

For we would rather never be, 
Than dwell where mind cannot be free, 
But bows beneath a despot's rod, 
Even where it seeks to worship God. 

Blasts of heaven, onward sweep ! 

Bear us o'er the troubled deep! 



PROSODY — PASTORAL POETRY. 291 

O, see what wonders meet our eyes! 

Another land, and other skies! 

Columbian hills have met our view! 

Adieu ! Old England's shores, adieu ! 
Here, at length, our feet shall rest, 
Hearts be free, and homes be blessed. 

As long as yonder firs shall spread 
Their green arm's o'er the mountain's head, — 
As long as yonder cliffs shall stand, 
Where join the ocean and the land, — 

Shall those cliffs and mountains be 

Proud retreats for liberty. 

Now to the King of king we'll raise 
The psean loud of sacred praise; 
More loud than sounds the swelling breeze, 
More loud than speak the rolling seas ! 

Happier lands have met our view ! 

England's shores, adieu! adieu! — T. C. Upham. 



Pastoral Poetry was formerly a poem describing the 
life and manners of Shepherds ; but it now embraces 
all poetry in which the scenes and objects of rural life 
are celebrated or described by painting the beauty, inno- 
cence, order, sublimity, simplicity, tranquility, etc., of 
nature — and human life spent in the midst of these 
scenes, the persons possessing happiness, health, inno- 
cence, sensibility, etc., undisturbed by anxieties and 
cares. It sometimes assumes the form of a simple song, 
ballad, etc. 

LIFE IN THE WEST. 

Ho ! brothers — come hither and list to my story — 

Merry and brief will the narrative be : 
Here, like a monarch, I reign in my glory — 

Master am I, boys, of all that I see. 



92 AMRICAN GRAMMAR. 

Where once frown' d a forest a garden is smiling — 
The meadow and moorland are marshes no more ; 

And there curls the smoke of my cottage, beguiling 
The children who cluster like grapes at the door. 

Then enter, boys ; cheerly, boys, enter and rest, 

The land of the heart is the land of the west. 
Oho, boys ! — oho, boys ! — oho ! 

Talk not of the town, boys — give me the broad prairie, 

Where man like the wind roams impulsive and free ; 
Behold how its beautiful colors all vary, 

Like those of the clouds, or the deep-trolling sea. 
A life in the woods, boys, is even as changing ; 

With proud independence we season our cheer, 
And those who the world are for happiness ranging 

Won't find it all, if they don't find it here. 

Then enter, boys ; cheerly, boys, enter and rest; 

I'll show you the life, boys, we live in the west. 

Oho, boys ! — oho, boys ! — oho ! 

Here, brothers, secure from all turmoil and danger, 

We reap what we sow, for the soil is our own ; 
We spread hospitality's board for the stranger, 

And care not a fig for the king on his throne. 
We never know want, for we live by our labor, 

And in it contentment and happiness find ; 
We do what we can for a friend or a neighbor, 

And die, boys, in peace and good-will to mankind. 
Then enter, boys ! — cheerly, boys, enter and rest ; 
You know how we live, boys, and die in the west ! 

Oho, boys! — oho, boys! — oho! — G. P. Morris. 

SUMMER EVENING AT A DISTANCE FROM THE CITY. 

And now the city smoke begins to rise, 

And spread its volume o'er the misty sea; 
From school dismissed, the barefoot urchin hies 

To drive the cattle from the upland lea; 
With gentle pace we cross the polished beach, 
And the sun sets as we our mansion reach. 
Then come the social joys of summer eve, 

The pleasant walk along the river-side, 
What time their task the weary boatmen leave, 

And little fishes from the silver tide, , 
Elate with joy, leap in successive springs, 
And spread the wavelets in diverging rings. 



PROSODY — SATIRES. 293 

High overhead the stripe-winged nighthawk soars, 

With loud responses to his distant love ; 
And while the air for insects he explores, 

In frequent swoop descending from above, 
Startles, with whizzing sound, the fearful wight, 
Who wanders lonely in the silent night. 
Around our heads the bat, on leathern wings, 

In airy circles wheels his sudden flight ; 
The whippowil, in distant forest, sings 

Her loud, unvaried song; and o'er the night 
The boding owl, upon the evening gale, 
Sends foth her wild and melancholy wail. 
The first sweet hour of gentle evening flies 

On downy pinions to eternal rest ; 
Along the vale the balmy breezes rise, 

Fanning the languid boughs; while in the west 
The last faint streaks of daylight die away, 
And nihgt and silence close the summer day. — Lewis. 



Satires or Satirical Poems are compositions of Poetry 
in which folly, vice, and wickedness are exposed with 
severity, by holding them up to the view in a jocose or 
ludicrous light, with contempt, etc. 

COURTSHIP. 

Fairest of earth ! if thou wilt hear my vow, 

Lo ! at thy feet I swear to love thee ever ; 
And by this kiss upon thy radiant brow, 

Promise affection which no time shall sever ; 
And love which e'er shall burn as bright as now, 

To be extinguished — never, dearest, never ! 
Wilt thou that naughty, fluttering heart resign ? 
Cathherixe ! my own sweet Kate ! wilt thou be mine ? 
Thou shalt have pearls to deck thy raven hair — 

Thou shalt have all this world of ours can bring ; 
And we will live in solitude, nor care 

For aught save for each other. We will fling 
Away all sorrow — Eden shall be there ! 

And thou shalt be my queen, and I thy king ! 
Still coy, and still reluctant? Sweetheart say, 
When shall we monarchs be? and which the day? 
*13 



294 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

MATRIMONY. 

Now Mrs. Pringle, once for all, I say 

I will not such extravagance allow ! 
Bills upon bills, and larger every day, 

Enough to drive a man to drink, I vow ! 
Bonnets, gloves, frippery and trash — nay, nay, 

Tears, Mrs. Pringle, will not gull me now — 
I say I won't allow ten dollars a week ; 
I can't afford it, madam, do not speak! 
In wedding you I thought I had a treasure ; 

I find myself most seriously mistaken ! 
You rise at ten, then spend the day in pleasure ; — 

In fact, my confidence is slightly shaken. 
Ha ! what's that uproar? This, ma'am, is my leisure; 

Sufficient noise the slumbering dead to waken ! 
I seek retirement, and I find — a riot ; 
Confound those children, but I'll make them quiet ! 

J. Parton. 



Sonnets are short Poetic compositions ; a short poem 
consisting of fourteen lines, two stanzas of four verses 
each and two of three each, the termination of the lines 
being mostly adjusted to six varieties of rhyme. 

THE TIMES. 

Inaction now is crime. The old earth reels 1 
Inebriate with guilt ; and Vice grown bold, 2 
Laughs Innocence to scorn. The thirst for gold 2 
Hath made men demons, till the heart that feels 1 
The impulse of impartial love, nor kneels 1 
In worship foul to Mammon, is contemn' d. 3 
He who hath kept his purer faith, and stemm'd 3 
Corruption's tide, and from the ruffian heels 1 
Of impious tramplers rescued peril' d right, 4 
Is call'd fanatic, and with scoffs and jeers 5 
Maliciously assail'd. The poor man's tears 5 
Are unregarded ; the oppressor's might 4 

Eevered as law ; and he whose righteous way 6 
Departs from evil, makes himself a prey. 6 

W. II. Burleigh. 



PROSODY SONETS. 295 



THE WIFE. 



All day, like some sweet bird, content to sing 

In its small cage, she moveth to and fro — 
And ever and anon will upward spring 

To her sweet lips, fresh from the fount below, 
The murmured melody of pleasant thought, 

Unconscious uttered, gentle-toned and low. 
Light household duties, evermore inwrought 

With placid fancies of one trusting heart 
That lives but in her smile, and turns 

From life's cold seeming and the busy mart, 
With tenderness, that heavenward ever yearns 
To be refreshed where one pure altar burns. 

Shut out from hence the mockery of life, 

Thus liveth she content, the meek, fond, trusting wife. 

RELIGION. 

Alone, yet not alone, the heart doth brood 

With a sad fondness o'er its hidden grief; 
Broods with a miser's joy, wherein relief 

Comes with a semblance of its own quaint mood. 
How many hearts this point of life have passed ! 
And some a train of light behind have cast, 

To show what hath been, and what may be ; 
That thus have suffered all the wise and good, 
Thus wept and prayed, thus struggled and were free. 

So doth the pilot trackless through the deep, 

Unswerving by the stars his reckoning keep ; 
He moves a highway not untried before, 

And thence he courage gains, and joy doth reap, 
Unfaltering lays his course, and leaves behind the shore. 

Elizabeth Oakes Smith. 



Spiritual Songs and Psalms are sacred poems, com- 
posed by the direction of the Holy Spirit, to be sung in 
joy with thanksgiving ; as that sung by Moses and the 
Israelites after escaping the danger of the Arabian Gulf 
and of Pharoah ; or of lamentation, as that of David 
over Saul and Jonathan, etc. The word Hymn or Hum 
primarily expressed the tune in singing a song or Psalm, 



296 



AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 



but it is now used for the ode or poem. A Psalm is a 
sacred song or poem ; a song composed, by the direc- 
tion of the Holy Ghost, on a divine subject, and in praise 
of God. The most remarkable Psalms are those com- 
posed by David and other inspired Jewish saints ; a col- 
lection of one hundred and fifty constitutes a book in the 
Old Testament, called " The Book of Psalms." 

The word Psalm is applied to compositions *of mod- 
ern Poets, being versifications of the Scriptural Psalms, 
for the use of the Church, they having lost their poetic 
measure by translation ; among these are " The Psalms 
in Metre/' (by Roush and others). Some are called 
by the names of the Poets ; as, The Psalms of Brady 
and Tate, of Watts, etc. 



A SPIRITUAL SONG OR PSALMS. 



PSALM CXIV. IN METER. 

When Isr'el out of Egypt went 
and did his dwelling change, 

When Jacob's house went out from 
those 
that were of language strange ; 

2 He Judah did his sanctuary, 
his kingdom Isr'el, make, 

3 The sea it saw, and quickly fled, 
Jordan was driven back. 

4 Like rams the mountains, and like 
the hills skipp'd to and fro. [lambs 

5 O sea, why fled'st thou ! Jordan, 
why wast thon driven so ? [back 

6 Ye mountains great,wherefore was 
that ye did skip like rams ? [it 

And wherefore was it, little hills, 
that ye did leap like lambs ? 

7 O at the presence of the Lord, 
earth, tremble thou for fear, 

While as the presence of the God 
of Jacob doth appear: 

8 Who from the hard and stony rock 
did standing water bring; 

And by his power did turn the flint 
into a water spring. 



WATTS PSALM CXIV. 

When Israel, freed from Pharaoh's 

hand, 
Left the proud Tyrant and his land, 
The tribes with cheerful homage 

own 
Their king, and Judah was his 

throne. 

2 Across the deep their journey lay : 
The deep divides to make them 

way. 
Jordan beheld their march, and fled 
With backward current to his head. 

3 The mountains shook like frighted 

sheep, 
Like lambs the little hillocks leap; 
Not Sinai on her base could stand. 
Conscious of sovereign power at 

hand. 
4What power could the deep divide? 
Make Jordan backward roll his tide? 
Why did ye leap, ye little hills? 
And whence the dread that Sinai 

feels ? 

5 Let every mountain, every flood 
Retire and know the approaching 

God, 
The King of Israel see him here: 
Tremble, thou earth; adore and fear; 

6 He thunders and all nature 

mourns, 
The rock to standing pools He turns. 
Flints spring with fountains at his 

word, 
And fires and seas confess the Lord. 



PROSODY — SPIRITUAL POETRY. 



291 



PSA.LM CXV. 

Not unto us. Lord, not to us, 

but do thou glory take 
Unto thy name, ev'n for thy truth, 

and for thy mercy's sake. 
2. O wherefore should the heathen 
say, 

Where is their God now gone? 

3 But our God in the heaven is 
what pleas' d him he hath done. 

4 Their idols silver are and gold 
M work of men's hands they be. 

5 Mouths have they, but they do not 
and eyes, but do not see. [speak; 

6 Ears have they, bat they do not 
noses, but savor not : [hear; 

7 Hands, feet, but handle not, nor 

walk ; 
nor speak they through their 
throat. 

g Like them their makers are, and 
on them their trust that build, [all 

9 O Isr'el, trust thou in the Lord: 
he is their help and shield. 

10 O Aaron's house, trust in the 
their help and shield is he. [Lord, 

11 Ye that fear God, trust in the 

Lord; 
their help and shield he'll be. 



12 The Lord of us hath mindful been 
and he will bless us still, 

He will the house of Isr'el bless, 
bless Aaron's house he will. 

13 Both small and great that fear the 
he will them surely bless. [Lord, 

14 The Lord will you, you and your 

seed, 
aye more and more increase. 

15 O blessed are ye of the Lord 
who made the earth and heav'n. 

16 The heav'n, ev'n heav'ns are 

God's, but he 
earth to men's sons hath giv'n. 

17 The dead, nor who to silence go, 
God's praise do not record. 

18 But henceforth we for ever will 
bless God. Praise ye the Lord. 



psa.lm cxv. — Part first. 
Not to ourselves, who are but dust, 
Not to ourselves is glory due, 
Eternal God, thou only just, 
Thou only gracious, wise, and true. 

2 Display to earth thy dreadful 

name; 
Why should a heathen's haughty 

tongue 
Insult us, and, to raise our shame, 
Say, "Where's the God you've 
served so long?" 

3 The God we serve maintains his 

throne 
Above the clouds, beyond the skies; 
Through all the earth his will is 

done, 
He knows our groans, He hears our 

cries. 

4 But the vain idols they adore 
Are senseless shapes of stone and 

wood: 
At best a mass of glittering ore, 
A silver saint, or golden god. 

5 With eyes and ears they carve 

the head ; 
Deaf are their ears, their eyes are 

blind: 
In vain are costly offerings made, 
And vows are scattered in the wind. 

6 Their feet were never made to 

move, 
Nor hands to save when mortals 

pray; 
Mortals that pay them fear or love, 
Seem to be blind and deaf as they. 

7 O Israel, make the Lord thy hope, 
Thy help, thy refuge, and thy rest ; 
The Lord shall build thy ruins up, 
And bless the people and the priest. 

8 The dead no more can speak thy 

praise, 
They dwell in silence in the grave ; 
But we shall live to sing thy grace, 
And tell the world thy power to 



298 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

Blank Verse is a bold, noble, and disencumbered 
species of versification, possessing great advantages 
over rhyme, which forces a full close upon the ear at the 
end of every couplet, etc. Blank verse is free from 
this, allowing the lines to run into each other ; suiting 
it particularly to subjects of dignity and force, which 
demand more free and stately numbers than rhyme. 

SOLITUDE. 

Deep solitude I sought. There was a dell 
Where woven shades shut out the eye of day, 
"While, towering near, the rugged mountains made 
Dark back-ground 'gainst the sky. Thither I went, 
And bade my spirit drink that lonely draught, 
For which it long had languished 'mid the strife 
And fever of the world. I thought to be 
There without witness. But the violet's eye 
Looked up upon me. — the fresh wild-rose smiled, 
And the young pendent vine-flower kissed my cheek, 
And there were voices too. The garrulous brook, 
Untiring, to the patient pebbles told 
Its history; — up came the singing breeze, 
And the broad leaves of the cool poplar spake 
Kesponsive, every one. Even busy life 
Woke in that dell. The tireless spider threw 
From spray to spray her silver-tissued snare. 
The wary ant, whose curving pincers pierced 
The treasured grain, toiled toward her citadel. 
To the sweet hive w r ent forth the loaded bee, 
And from the wind-rocked nest, the mother-bird 
Sang to her nurslings. 

Yet I strangely thought 
To be alone, and silent in thy realm, 
Spirit of life and love! It might not be! 
There is no solitude in thy domains, 
Save what man makes, when, in his selfish breast, 
He locks his joys, and bars out others' grief. 
Thou hast not left thyself to Nature's round 
Without a witness. Trees, and flowers, and streams, 
Are social and benevolent; and he 
Who oft communeth in their language pure, 
Eoaming among them at the cool of day, 
Shall find, like him Eden's garden dressed, 
His maker there, to teach his listening heart. — Sigourney 



PROSODY. 299 



PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES, 



INVOKING MUSES TO AMERICA. 

' Pierian nymphs that haunt Sicilian plains, 

And first inspired to sing in rural strains, 

A western course has pleased you all along ; 

Greece, Kome, and Briton, flourished all in song. 

Keep on your way, and spread a glorious fame ; 

Around the earth let all admire your name. 

Choose in our plains or forests soft retreats ; 

For here the muses boast no ancient seats. 

Here fertile fields and fishy streams abound ; 

Nothing is wanting but poetic ground. 

Bring me that pipe with which Alexis charmed 

The eastern world, and every bosom warm'd. 

Our western climes shall henceforth own your power ; 

Thetis shall hear it from her wat'ry bower ; 

Even Phcebus listen as his chariot flies, 

And smile propitious from his flaming skies. 

( Haste, lovely nymphs ! and quickly come away, 

Our sylvan gods lament your long delay ; 

The stately oaks that dwell on Delaware, 

Eear their tall heads to view you from afar ; 

The naids summon all their scaly crew, 

And at Henlopen anxious wait for you. 

Haste, lovely nymphs ! and quickly reach our shore. 

The impatient river heeds his tides no more, 

Forsakes his banks, and where he joins the main, 

Heaps waves on waves to usher in your train. 

1 But hark ! they come ! the dryads crowd the shore, 

The waters rise, I hear the billows roar ! 

Hoarse Delaware the joyful tiding brings, 

And all his swans, transported, clap their wings. 

Our mountains ring with all their savage host — 

Thrice welcome, lovely nymphs, to India's coast; 

Not more Parnassian rocks Phcebus admire, 

Nor Thracian mountains Orpheus tuneful lyre ; 

Not more sad lovers court the darkling note 

Of Philomela's mournful warbling throat ; 

Not more the morning lark delight the swains, 

Than you, sweet maids, our Pennsylvania plains ! ' 

Berkley. 



300 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

THE LIFE OF GOD IN THE SOUL OF MAN. 

Come, brother, turn with me from pining thought, 
And all those inward ills that sin has wrought ; 
Come, send abroad a love for all who live. 
Canst guess what deep content, in turn, they give? 
Kind wishes and good deeds will render back 
More than thou e'er canst sum. Thoult nothing lack, 
But say, ' I'm full! ' — "Where does the stream begin ? 
The source of outward joy lies deep within. 

E'en let it flow, and make the places glad 
Where dwell thy fellow men. Should'st thou be sad, 
And earth seem bare, and hours, once happy, press 
Upon thy thoughts, and make thy loneliness 
More lonely for the past, thou then shalt hear 
The music of those waters running near, 
And thy faint spirit drink the cooling stream, 
And thine eye gladden with the playing beam, 
That now, upon the water, dances, now 
Leaps up and dances in the hanging bough. 

Is it not lovely ? Tell me, where doth dwell 
The fay that wrought so beautiful a spell ? 
In thine own bosom, brother, didst thou say ? 
Then cherish as thine own so good a fay. 

And if, indeed, 'tis not the outward state, 
But temper of the soul, by which we rate 
Sadness or joy, then let thy bosom move 
"With noble thoughts, and wake thee into love; 
Then let the feeling in thy breast be given 
To honest ends ; this, sanctified by Heaven, 
And springing into life, new life imparts, 
Till thy frame beats as with a thousand hearts. 

Our sins our nobler faculties debase, 
And make the earth a spiritual waste 
Unto the soul's dimmed eye: — 'tis man, not earth — 
'Tis thou, poor, self-starved soul, hast caused the dearth. 
The earth is full of life : the living Hand 
Touched it with life ; and all its forms expand 
With principles of being made to suit 
Man's varied powers, and raise him from the brute. 
And shall the earth of higher ends be full ? — 
Earth which thou tread'st !— and thy poor mind be dull ? 
Thou talk of life, with half thy soul asleep ! 
Thou 'living dead man,' let thy spirits leap 



PROSODY — EXERCISES. 301 

Forth to the day ; and let the fresh air blow 

Through thy soul's shut up mansion. Would' st thou know 

Something of what is life, shake off this death ; 

Have thy soul feel the universal breath 

With which all nature's quick! and learn to be 

Sharer in all that thou dost touch or see. 

Break from thy body's grasp thy spirit's trance; 

Give thy soul air, thy faculties expanse : — 

Love, joy, — e'en sorrow, — yield thyself to all! 

They'll make thy freedom, man, and not thy thrall. 

Knock off the shackles which thy spirit bind 

To dust and sense, and set at large thy mind. 

Then move in sympathy with God's great whole, 

And be, like man at first, u a living soul !' 

Debased by sin, and used to things of sense, 
How shall man's spirit rise and travel hence, 
Where lie the soul's pure regions, without bounds — 
Where mind's at large — where passion ne'er confounds 
Clear thought — where thought is sight — the far brings nigh, 
Calls up the deep, and, now, calls down the high. 

Cast off thy slough r Send thy low spirit forth 
Up to the Infinite ; then know thy worth. 
With Infinite, be infinite ; with Love, be love ; 
Angel, midst angel throngs that move above ; 
Ay, more than angel: nearer the great Cause 
Through his redeeming power now read his laws — 
Not w T ith thy earthly mind, that half detects 
Something of outward things by slow effects ; 
Viewing creative causes, learn to know 
The hidden springs; nor guess, as here below, 
Laws, purposes, relations, sympathies — 
In errors vain. — Clear Truth's in yonder skies. 

Creature all grandeur, son of truth and light, 
Up from the dust! the last, great day is bright — 
Bright on the holy mountain round the throne, 
Bright where in borrowed light the far stars shone. 
Look down ! the depths are bright ! and hear them cry, 
1 Light ! light !' — look up! 'tis rushing down from high ! 
Regions on regions — far away they shine : 
'Tis light ineffable, 'tis light divine! 
' Immortal light, and life for evermore !' 
Off through the deep is heard from shore to shore 
Of rolling worlds — ' Man, wake thee from the sod — 
Wake thee from death — awake! — and live with God!' 

14 Dana. 



302 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 



TO A STAR. 



Thou brightly glittering star of even, 
Thou gem upon the brow of heaven ! 
Oh! were this fluttering spirit free, 
How quick 'twould spread its wings to thee! 
How calmly, brightly, dost thou shine, 
Like the pure lamp in virtue's shrine ! 
Sure the fair world which thou may'st boast 
Was never ransomed, never lost. 
There, beings pure as heaven's own air, 
Their hopes, their joys, together share; 
"While hovering angels touch the string, 
And seraphs spread the sheltering wing. 

There, cloudless days and brilliant nights, 
Illumed by heaven's refulgent lights ; 
There, seasons, years, unnoticed roll, 
And unregretted by the soul. 
Thou little sparkling star of even, 
Thou gem upon an azure heaven ! 
How swiftly will I soar to thee, 

When this imprisoned soul is free ! — L. M. Davidson. 
Written in her fifteenth year. 

SONG OF THE SHEPHERDS. 

While thus the shepherds watched the host of night, 
O'er heaven's blue concave flashed a sudden light. 
The unrolling glory spread its folds divine 
O'er the green hills and vales of Palestine; 
And lo ! descending angels, hovering there, 
Stretched their loose wings, and in the purple air 
Hung o'er the sleepless guardians of the fold : 
When that nigh anthem, clear, and strong, and bold, 
On wavy paths of trembling ether ran : 
' Glory to God — Benevolence to man — 
.Peace to the world:' — and in full concert came, 
From silver tubes and harps of golden frame, 
The loud and sweet response, whose choral strains 
Lingered and languished on Judea's plains. 
Yon living lamps, charmed from their chambers blue 
By airs so heavenly, from the skies withdrew : 
All ? — -all, but one, that hung and burned alone, 
And with mild lustre over Bethlehem shone. 
Chaldea's sages saw that orb afar 
Glow unextinguished; — 'twas Salvation's Star. — Plcrpont. 



PROSODY — EXERCISES. 303 



TO PNEUMA. 

Tempests their furious course may sweep 
Swiftly o'er the troubled deep, 
Darkness may lend her gloomy aid, 
And wrap the groaning world in shade; 
But man can show a darker hour, 
And bend beneath a stronger power; — 
There is a tempest of the soul, 
A gloom where wilder billows roll ! 

The howling wilderness may spread 
Its pathless deserts, parched and dread, 
"Where not a blade of herbage blooms, 
Nor yields the breeze its soft perfumes; 
Where silence, death, and horror reign, 
Unchecked, across the wide domain; — 
There is a desert of the mind 
More hopeless, dreary, undefined! 

There Sorrow, moody Discontent, 
And gnawing Care, are wildly blent ; 
There Horror hangs her darkest clouds, 
And the whole scene in gloom enshrouds; 
A sickly ray is cast around, 
Where nought but dreariness is found; 
A feeling that may not be told, 
Dark, rending, lonely, drear, and cold. 

The wildest ills that darken life 

Are rapture to the bosom's strife; 

The tempest in its blackest form, 

Is beauty to the bosom's storm; 

The ocean, lashed to fury loud, 

Its high wave mingling with the cloud, 

Is peaceful, sweet serenity 

To passion's dark and boundless sea. 

There sleeps no calm, there smiles no rest, 

When storms are warring in the breast; 

There is no moment of repose 

In bosoms lashed by hidden woes; 

The scorpion sting the fury rears, 

And every trembling fibre te^rs; 

The vulture preys with bloody beak 

Upon the heart that can but break! — J. W. Eastborn. 



304 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 



THE MARTYR. 

"Not yet, not yet the martyr dies. He sees 

His triumph on its way. He hears the crash 
Of the loud thunder round his enemies, 

And dim through tears of blood he sees it dash 
His dwelling and its idols. Joy to him ! 

The Lord — the Lord hath spoken from the sky ! 
The loftier glories on his eyeballs swim ! 

He hears the trumpet of Eternity ! 

Calling his spirit home — a clarion voice on high ! 

Yet, yet one moment linger ! Who are they 

That sweep far off along the quivering air ? 
It is God's bright, immortal company — 

The martyr pilgrim and his band are there ! 
Shadows with golden crowns and sounding lyres, 

And the white royal robes are issuing out, 
And beckon upwards through the wreathing fires, 

The blazing pathway compassing about, 

"With radiant heads unveiled, and anthem's joyful shout ! 

He sees, he hears ! upon his dying gaze, 

Forth from the throng one bright-haired angel near, 
Stoops his red pinion through the mantling blaze — 

It is the Heaven-triumphing wanderer ! 
Unlike the crowned idols of our race, 

Thou dost no earthly pomp about thee cast, 
Thou tireless sentinel of elder days ! — 

Who, who to Conscience doth now bow at last, 
Old arbiter of Time — the present and the past ! 

Thou wast from God when the green earth was young, 

And man enchanted rov'd amid its flowers, 
When faultless woman to his bosom clung, 

Or led him through her paradise of bowers; 
Where love's low whispers from the Garden rose, 

And both amid its bloom and beauty bent, 
In the long luxury of their first repose ! 

When the whole earth was incense, and there went 
Perpetual praise from altars to the firmament. — W. G. Clark. 



PROSODY — EXERCISES. 305 



EARLY LOST, EARLY SAVED. 

Within her downy cradle, there lay a little child, 
And a group of hovering angels unseen upon her smiled; 
When a strife arose among them, a loving, holy strife, 
Which should shed the richest blessing over the newborn life. 

One breathed upon her features, and the babe in beauty grew, 
With a cheek like morning's blushes, and an eye of azure hue; 
Till every one who saw her was thankful for the sight 
Of a face so sweet and radiant with ever fresh delight. 

Another gave her accents, and a voice as musical 
As a spring-bird's joyous carol, or a rippling streamlet's fall, 
Till all who heard her laughing, or her words of childish grace, 
Loved as much to listen to her, as to look upon her face. 

Another brought from heaven a clear and gentle mind, 
And within the lovely casket the precious gem enshrined; 
Till all who knew her wondered that God should be so good 
As to bless with such a spirit a world so cold and rude. 

Thus did she grow in beauty, in melody, and truth, 

The budding of her childhood just opening into youth; 

And to our hearts yet dearer, every moment than before, 

She became, though we thought fondly heart could not love her more. 

Then out spoke another angel, nobler, brighter than the rest, 
As with strong arm, but tender, he caught her to his breast ; 
* Ye have made her all too lovely for a child of mortal race, 
But no shade of human sorrow shall darken o'er her face : 

4 Ye have tuned to gladness only the accents of her tongue, 
And no wail of human anguish shall from her lips be wrung; 
Nor shall the soul that shineth so purely from within 
Her form of earth-born frailty, ever know a sense of sin. 

' Lulled in my faithful bosom, I will bear her far away, 
Where there is no sin, nor anguish, nor sorrow, nor decay; 
And mine a boon more glorious than all your gifts shall be — 
Lo ! I crown her happy spirit with immortality ! ' 

Then on his heart our darling yielded up her gentle breath, 
For the stronger, brighter angel, who loved her best, was Death ! 

G. W. Bethnne. 



306 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 



HAGAR IN THE WILDERNESS. 

The morning broke. Light stole upon the clouds 
With a strange beauty. Earth received again 
Its garment of a thousand dyes ; and leaves. 
And delicate blossoms, and the painted flowers, 
And everything that bendeth to the dew, 
And stirreth with the daylight, lifted up 
Its beauty to the breath of that sweet morn. 

All things are dark to sorrow ; and the light 
And loveliness, and fragrant air were sad 
To the dejected Hagar. The moist earth 
"Was pouring odors from its spicy pores, 
And the young birds were singing as if life 
Were a new thing to them; but oh ! it came 
Upon her heart like discord, and she felt 
How cruelly it tries a broken heart 
To see a mirth in anything it loves. 
She stood at Abraham's tent. Her lips were press'd 
Till the blood started ; and the wandering veins 
Of her transparent forehead were swell'd out 
As if her pride would burst them. Her dark eye 
Was clear and tearless, and the light of heaven, 
Which made its language legible, shot back 
From her long lashes, as it had been flame. 
Her noble boy stood by her, with his hand 
Clasp' d in her own, and his round, delicate feet, 
Scarce train' d to balance on the tented floor, 
Sandall'd for journeying. He had look'd up, 
Into his mother's face until he caught 
The spirit there, and his young heart was swelling 
Beneath his dimpled bosom, and his form 
Straighten' d up proudly in his tiny wrath, 
As if his light proportions would have swell'd, 
Had they but matched his spirit, to the man. 

Why bends the patriarch as he cometh now 
Upon his staff so wearily ? His beard 
Is low upon his breast, and his high brow, 
So written with the converse of his God, 
Beareth the swollen vein of agony. 
His lip is quivering, and his wonted step 
Of vigor is not there ; and, though the morn 
Is passing fair and beautiful, he breathes 
Its freshness as it were a pestilence. 
Oh ! man may bear with suffering : his heart 



PROSODY — EXERCISES. 30 1 

Is a strong thing, and godlike, in the grasp 
Of pain that wrings mortality ; but tear 
One chord affection clings to — part one tie 
That binds him to a woman's delicate love — 
And his great spirit yieldeth like a reed. 

He gave to her the water and the bread, 
But spoke no word, and trusted not himself 
To look upon her face, but laid his hand 
In silent blessing on the fair-hair' d boy, 
And left her to her lot of loneliness. 

Should Hagar weep? May slighted woman turn, 
And, as a vine the oak hath shaken off, 
Bend lightly to her leaning trust again? 
O no ! by all her loveliness — by all 
That makes life poetry and beauty, no ! 
Make her a slave ; steal from her rosy cheek 
By needless jealousies; let the last star 
Leave her a watcher by your couch of pain ; 
Wrong her by petulance, suspicion, all 
That makes her cup a bitterness — yet give 
One evidence of love, and earth has not 
An emblem of devotedness like hers. 
But oh ! estrange her once — it boots not how — 
By wrong or silence — anything that tells 
A change has come upon your tenderness — 
And there is not a feeling out of heaven 
Her pride o'ermastereth not. 

She went her way with a strong step and slow — 
Her press'd lip arch'd, and her clear eye undimm'd, 
As if it were a diamond, and her form 
Borne proudly up, as if her heart breathed through 
Her child kept on in silence, though she press' d 
His hand till it was pained ; for he had caught, 
As I have said, her spirit, and the seed 
Of a stern nation had been breathed upon. 

The morning pass'd, and Asia's sun rode up 
In the clear heaven, and every beam was heat. 
The cattle of the hills were in the shade, 
And the bright plumage of the Orient lay 
On beating bosoms in her spicy trees. 
It was an hour of rest ! but Hagar found 
No shelter in the wilderness, and on 
She kept her weary way, until the boy 
Hung down his head, and open'd his parch'd lips 
For water; but she could not give it him. 



308 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

She laid him down beneath the sultry sky — 

For it was better than the close, hot breath 

Of the thick pines — and tried to comfort him ; 

But he was sore athirst, and his blue eyes 

Were dim and bloodshot, and he could not know 

"Why God denied him water in the wild. 

She sat a little longer, and he grew 

Ghastly and faint, as if he would have died. 

It was too much for her. She lifted him, 

And bore him further on, and laid his head 

Beneath the shadow of a desert shrub ; 

And, shrouding up her face, she went away, 

And sat to watch, where he could see her not, 

Till he should die; and, watching him, she mourn'd:— 

' God stay thee in thine agony, my boy ! 
I cannot see thee die ; I cannot brook 

Upon thy brow to look, 
And see death settle on my cradle joy. 
How have I drunk the light of thy blue eye ! 

And could I see thee die ? 

' I did not dream of this when thou wast straying, 
Like an unbound gazelle, among the flowers ; 

Or wiling the soft hours, 
By the rich gush of water-sources playing, 
Then sinking weary to thy smiling sleep 

So beautiful and deep. 

f Oh no ! and when I watched by thee the while, 
And saw thy bright lip curling in thy dream, 

And thought of the dark stream 
In my own land of Egypt, the far Nile, 
How pray'd I that my father's land might be 

An heritage for thee ! 

' And now the grave for its cold breast hath won thee! 
And thy white, delicate limbs the earth will pioss; 

And oh! my last caress 
Must feel thee cold, for a chill hand is on thee. 
How can I leave my boy, so pillow' d there 

Upon his clustering hair!' 

She stood beside the well her God had given 
To gush in that deep wilderness, and bathed 
The forehead of her child until he laugh'd 
In his reviving happiness, and lisp'd 
His infant thought of gladness at the sight 
Of the cool plashing of his mother's hand. — Willis. 



PROSODY EXERCISES. 309 



FROM 'THE BRIDAL. 7 

Young beauty at the altar ! Ye may go 

And rifle earth of all its loveliness, 

And of all things created hither bring 

The rosiest and the richest — but, alas ! 

The world is all too poor to rival this ! 

Ye summon nothing from the place of dreams, 

The orient realm of fancy, that can cope, 

In all its passionate devotedness, 

"With this chaste, silent picture of the heart ! 

Youth, bud- encircling youth, and purity, % 

Yielding their bloom and fragrance up in tears. 

G. Mellen. 



MARCO BOZZARIS. 

At midnight, in his guarded tent, 
The Turk was dreaming of the hour 

When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent, 
Should tremble at his power: 

In dreams through camp and court he bore 

The trophies of a conqueror; 

• In dreams the song of triumph heard : 

Then wore his monarch's signet ring ; 

Then pressed that monarch's throne — a king ; 

As wild his thoughts, and gay of wing, m 

As Eclens garden bird. 

At midnight, in the forest shades, 

Bozzaris ranged his Suliote band,- 
True as the steel of their tried blades, 

Heroes in heart and hand. 
There had the Persians thousands stood, 
Ther^ahad the glad earth drank their blood 

Oil Old Plata's day ; 
And now there breathed that haunted air 
The sons of sires who conquered there, 
With arm to strike and soul to dare, 

As quick, as far as they. 
An hour passed on— the Turk awoke ; 

That bright dream was his last; 
He woke to hear his sentries shriek, 
'To arms! they come i the Greek! the Greek!' 



310 AMERICAN GRAMMAR. 

He woke — to die midst flame, and smoke, 
And shout, and groan, and sabre-stroke, 

And death-shots falling thick and fast 
As lightnings from the mountain-cloud ; 
And heard, with voice as trumpet loud, 

Bozzaris cheer his hand: 
'Strike — till the last armed foe expires; 
Strike — for your altars and your tires ; 
Strike- — for the green graves of your sires : 

God, and your native land ! ' 
They fought, like brave men, long and well ; 

They piled that ground with Moslem slain; 
They conquered — but Bozzaris fell, 

Bleeding at every vein. 
His few surviving comrades saw 
His smile when rang their proud hurrah, 

And the red field was won : 
Then saw in death his eyelids close 
Calmly, as to a night's repose, 

Like flowers at set of sun. — Hailed'. 

THE GRAVES OF THE PATRIOTS. 

Here rest the great and good — here they repose 
After their generous toil. A sacred band, 
They take their sleep together, while the year 
Comes with its early flowers to deck their graves. 
And gathers them again, as Winter frowns. 
Thei« is no vulgar sepulchre; green sods 
Are all their monument ; and yet it tells 
A nobler history than pillared piles, 
Or the eternal pyramids. They need 
No statute nor inscription to reveal 
Their greatness. It is round them ; and the joy 
"With which their children tread the hallowed ground 
That hold their venerated bones, the peace 
That smiles on all they fought for, and the wealth 
That clothes the land they rescued — these, though mute, 
As feeling ever is when deepest, — these 
Are monuments more lasting than the fanes 
Beared to the kings and demigods of old 

Touch not the ancient elms, that bend their shade 
Over their lowly graves; beneath their boughs 
There is a solemn darkness, even at noon, 
Suited to such as visit at the shrine 
Of serious Liberty. 



PROSODY— EXERCISES 311 

No factious voice 
Called them unto the field of generous fame, 
But the pure consecrated love of home. 
No deeper feeling sways us, when it wakes 
In all its greatness. It has told itself 
To the astonished gaze of awe-struck kings, 
At Marathon, at Bannockburn, and here, 
Where first our patriots sent the invader back 
Broken and cowed. Let these green elms be .all 
To tell us where they fought, and where they lie. 
There feelings were all nature, and they need 
No art to make them known. They live in us, 
While we are like them, simple, hardy, bold, 
Worshipping nothing but our own pure hearts 
And the one universal Lord. They need 
No column, pointing to the heaven they sought, 
To tell us of their home. The heart itself, 
Left to its own free purpose, hastens there, 
And there alone reposes. Let these elrhs 
Bend their protecting shadow o'er their graves, 
And build, with their green roof, the only fane 
Where we may gather on the hallowed day, 
That rose to them in blood, and set in glory. 
Here let us meet, and, while our motionless lips 
Give not a sound, and all around is mute 
In the deep sabbath' of a heart too full 
For words or tears, — here let us strew the sod 
With the first flowers of spring, and make to them 
An offering of the plenty Nature gives, 
And they have rendered ours — perpetually. — Percival. 



THE ANTIQUITY OF FREEDOM. 

Oh Freedom ! thou, art not, as poets dream, 
A fair young girl, with light and delicate limbs, 
And wavy tresses gushing from the cap 
With which the Roman master crowned his slave 
When he took off the gyves. A bearded man, 
Armed to the teeth, art thou ; one mailed hand 
Grasps the broad shield, and one the sword; thy brow, 
Glorious in. beauty though it be, is scarred 
With tokens of old wars; thy massive limbs 
Are strong with struggling. Power at thee has launched 
His bolts, and with his lightnings smitten thee; 
They could not quench the life thou hast from heaven. 



312 AMERICAN GRAMMAR 

Merciless power has dug thy dungeon deep, 

And his swart armorers, by a thousand fires, 

Have forged thy chain ; yet, while he deems thee bound, 

The links are shivered, and the prison walls 

Fall outward; terribly thou springest forth, 

As springs the flame above a burning pile, 

And shoutest to the nation?, who return 

Thy shoutings, while the pale oppressor flies. 

Thy birthright was not given by human hands : 
Thou wert twin-born with man. In pleasant fields, 
While yet our race was few, thou sat'st with him, 
To tend the quiet flock and watch the stars, 
And teach the reed to utter simple airs. 
Thou by his side, amid the tangled wood, 
Didst war upon the panther and the wolf, 
His only foes; and thou with him didst draw 
The earliest furrows on the mountain side, 
Soft with the deluge. Tyranny himself, 
Thy enemy, although of reverend look, 
Hoary with many years, and far obeyed, 
Is later born than thou; and as he meets • 
The grave defiance of thine elder eye, 
The usurper trembles in his fastnesses. 

Thou shalt wax stronger with the lapse of years, 
But he shall fade into a feebler age ; 
Feebler, yet subtler. He shall weave his snares, 
And spring them on thy careless steps, and clap 
His withered hands, and from their ambush call 
His hordes to fall upon thee. He shall send 
Quaint maskers, wearing fair and gallant forms, 
To catch thy gaze, and uttering graceful words 
To charm thy ear ; while his sly imps, by stealth, 
Twine round thee threads of steel, light thread on thread 
That grow to fetters ; or bind down thy arms 
With chains concealed in chaplets. Oh ! not yet 
Mayst thou unbrace thy corslet, nor lay by 
Thy sword; nor yet, O Freedom! close thy lids 
In slumber ; for thine enemy never sleeps, 
And thou must watch and combat till the day 
Of the new earth and heaven. 






